“The beginning of teaching for children who want to understand the Scriptures”
I. Fedorov "ABC"
The word “alphabet” comes from the name of the first letters of the Slavic alphabet “Az” and “Buki”.
The first Russian alphabets have been known since the 12th century; they were written down by hand on birch bark letters. Handwritten alphabets of the 13th-14th centuries have reached us. But the most famous is, of course, the first printed Slavic “ABC” by Ivan Fedorov, published in 1574.
I. Fedorov’s “ABC” reflects the ancient letter-subjunctive system of teaching literacy, inherited from the Greeks and Romans and based entirely on learning by heart. At the beginning of the book there is an alphabet with 46 letters from the letter “az” to “Izhitsa”.
Over the past centuries, both the outlines of the letters and the composition of the alphabet have changed several times, but fundamentally it has remained unchanged to this day.
The ABC experienced its first serious reform in the 18th century, becoming the source of the civil font, introduced by decree of Peter I in 1708-1710. for books of secular content. The complex graphics of the Old Russian Cyrillic alphabet were simplified, its superscripts disappeared, and some letters inherited from the Greek alphabet (“psi”, “fert”, “omega”, “yat” and “small yus”) became unnecessary for speech transmission. In the figurative expression of M.V. Lomonosov, “under Peter the Great, not only the boyars and boyars, but also the letters, threw off their wide fur coats and dressed up in summer clothes.”
In 1735, by decree of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the ABC underwent another reform, as a result of which the letters “xi”, “Izhitsa” and “zelo” were abolished. But in 1758, “Izhitsa” was restored, and the sign “yu” with a “lid” was added, which would later become the letter “e” and the letter “th”.
After the Soviet reform of 1917-1918. The Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters (counting the letter ё, which became “official” only in 1942). 4 letters were abolished: the decimal “i” (i), “fita” (θ), “izhitsa” (v) and “yat” (ѣ́).
All these changes were reflected in the ABCs and Primers.
Obviously, the alphabet is older than the primer. The alphabet meant only the alphabet and syllables. By the time the first printed primer appeared, the form of its construction had practically taken shape. It was a combination of ABC's and reading material. The contents of the primer almost always included three sections: ABC, grammatical and textbook. The first part usually contained the alphabet, where letters and reading exercises were arranged in different sequences. The letters were usually presented in different fonts and were accompanied by a picture of some object that began with or had a given letter in it. The second part of the book was occupied by general grammatical information. The third part contained texts for children's reading: funny stories, advice for boys and girls, passages from scripture, instructive instructions, and short poems.
Despite their enormous popularity, large circulations and frequent publications, the alphabet books and primers are among the rarest. Among book collectors, collectors of these publications are rare. Not a single library in the world has any complete collection of them. The primers used by children became dirty, became unusable, and most often were thrown away after finishing the study. But it also happened that inquisitive travelers and diplomats took these books to different countries and kept them as “oriental rarities.” Thanks to such collectors and libraries, priceless treasures - Russian printed alphabets and primers - have been preserved and come to us.
And, if you meet a book not by the dress, but by its meaning for a person, then there is hardly anything more impressive and instructive than a collection of various primers and alphabet books. Let's leaf through them slowly and thoughtfully.
Once upon a time, people carved words into stones. In Ancient Greece, Egypt and Babylon, the school notebook was a smooth earthen area or wet clay tablets. A clay primer would probably weigh fifty kilograms! But at that time, textbooks were not carried home, clay tablets were kept at school, and students came there early in the morning and left at night.
Later they began to write on papyrus and parchment. In medieval Novgorod they wrote on birch bark. During excavations, archaeologists found a birch bark notebook of a boy named Onfim. He copied the alphabet into this notebook and drew little men...
First printed books
Only in the 15th century did the turn of printing come. It was not easy to print the first books. All the words and pictures were cut out on the board, but not the way we read them, but as if reflected in a mirror. Then paint was applied to the board, applied to the paper, and the correct impression of the page was obtained on the sheet.
Later, in the 40s of the 15th century, the German inventor Johannes Gutenberg came up with a typeface that could be used many times. The letters were not cut out on one board, but each on a separate block. I printed one book, take the set apart, sort it and type a new one...
It is difficult to name a more important invention in the history of mankind! If previously a book was copied by hand, it existed in a single copy and was incredibly expensive, but now it was possible to print many books, and they became much cheaper.
Sovereign Printing Yard in Moscow
Ivan the Terrible tried to expel printing masters from abroad. It was probably not beneficial for other states for a large, strong country to also become a literate country. The masters never arrived in Russia.
This portrait of Ivan Fedorov was painted by an unknown artist of the 19th century. In the upper left corner is the printed sign of Ivan Fedorov, which was on all his books.
And yet, in Moscow in 1563, the first printing house was opened - the Sovereign Printing House. On behalf of Ivan IV, Ivan Fedorov took up the business of printing. Apparently, he was an educated and knowledgeable person, if such an important matter was entrusted to him. The first books printed in Russia were church books.
However, soon Ivan Fedorov went to Poland. At that time, the Polish state included part of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. Scientists were at a loss for a long time: why did he leave? Fedorov himself, in the preface to the Apostle, published in Lvov, wrote that “spiritual superiors” fought with him. For a long time this was not clear. It was believed that Ivan Fedorov published only church books. It would seem that this should have pleased the clergy: books needed by the church are published in printing houses in large editions...
So, the reasons for Ivan Fedorov’s departure from Moscow remained unknown. Moreover, books of secular, non-ecclesiastical content began to be published in Russia much later, many years after the death of Ivan Fedorov - this is what scientists believed until recently. He died in Lvov in 1583, and the first Russian ABC, compiled by Vasily Burtsev, was published in Moscow only in 1634.
"Lviv ABC"
Title page of "Grammar" by Ivan Fedorov. Look, the alphabet of that time seems to be similar to ours. But there are also letters here, especially at the end, that are unfamiliar to you, dead. The very last one was called “Izhitsa”, the one on the far right in the next row was “yus”, above it was “fita”.
And in the twenties of the 20th century, a small book was found in Rome - “Grammar” (“Lviv ABC”), published in 1574 with the Drukhar stamp of Ivan Fedorov. At that time, many Drukhari printers had their own emblems. They were placed at the end of the book, just as we now put our signature on a letter.
There are two pictures on the last page of the Grammar. On one of them is the coat of arms of the city of Lvov, the second is the seal of Ivan Fedorov. This sign is on all his books. It resembles a shield, and on the shield are the letters: “I O A N.”
In the afterword to “Grammar,” Ivan Fedorov introduced his work to the reader as follows:
“I did not write this little on my own, but from the teachings of the divine apostles and God-bearing fathers and from the grammar of the Venerable Father John of Damascus, reducing it to a small amount, and putting it together for the quick education of children. And if my works turn out to be worthy of your mercy, accept them with love. And I I am willingly ready to work on other books that please you, if God grants through your holy prayers. Amen.”
The Lviv ABC has eighty pages. On the title page are all the letters of the Russian alphabet of that time. The book got its name from the first letters “Az” and “Buki”. After the alphabet there are tables of syllables and conjugations. The examples show how the meaning of a word changes depending on stress. The primer contains prayers and sayings about the benefits of literacy and education.
Feat of a printer
Not so long ago, in our days, we managed to find another edition of Fedorov’s “Grammar”. It was published four years after the first one.
It became clear that Ivan Fedorov published not only church books. There is an assumption that he intended to open Russian schools in Lviv (there were many Russians in Poland at that time). Ivan Fedorov understood that only education would make Russia strong and prosperous. And education begins with the ABC...
This is probably why Fedorov had to leave Moscow. His desire to print “Primers” and “Grammars”, and not just church books, caused discontent among the metropolitan and his associates. After leaving, he lived in Zabludov, Lvov, Ostrog and set up printing houses everywhere and published Russian books.
Fedorov failed to do everything he had in mind. But he was the first to publish books to educate our people. And this is the feat of Ivan Fedorov.
The day of September 8 can be called the Day of the Russian Primer. On September 8, 1574, in Lvov, in one of the cells of the Onufrievsky Monastery, the printing of the “Grammar” was completed.
Today, to print a book, it is enough to charge the printer with ink and the required amount of paper. After waiting three minutes (or half an hour - the power of the device plays a role here), anyone will print the necessary book - be it the Bible or the Anarchist Cookbook. Previously, to carry out this kind of work it would have been necessary to put in much more effort and use much more resources, and only a few could carry out such an operation, including Ivan Fedorov.
Childhood and youth
There is no reliable information about the pioneer printer’s childhood. According to historians, Ivan was born in 1510 in the Grand Duchy of Moscow. This date is largely based on the findings of the Soviet historian Evgeniy Lvovich Nemirovsky, who found a document indicating that between 1529 and 1532 Ivan studied at the Jagiellonian University, which is located in Krakow, the current capital of Poland.
Also, according to Soviet and Russian historians, the ancestors of the first printer were from lands belonging to the current Republic of Belarus. After graduating from the Jagiellonian University in 1532, Fedorov was appointed deacon of the Church of St. Nicholas of Gostun. In those years, Metropolitan Macarius himself became his immediate leader, with whom Ivan would have a long collaboration.
First printing house
In 1552, he made a landmark decision - to begin printing books in Church Slavonic in Moscow. Before this, there were similar attempts to print books in Church Slavonic, but abroad.
The king ordered that a specialist in the field of printing, living in Denmark, be brought to him. This specialist was Hans Messingheim, who became famous for his work not only in his homeland. Under his leadership, the first printing house in Rus' was built.
By decree of the tsar, printing presses and the first letters were brought from Poland - printed elements with symbols of the Church Slavonic alphabet. Later they were updated and supplemented by Vasyuk Nikiforov, invited by the Tsar in 1556. Nikiforov also became the first Russian engraver - his works can be found in surviving copies of books printed in that printing house.
Having confirmed his expectations about book printing, Ivan the Terrible opens the Moscow Printing House, which operates and develops at the expense of the state budget. This event takes place in 1563.
The very next year, the first and, fortunately, surviving book of the printing house, “The Apostle,” will be published. Later it will be supplemented by the Book of Hours. In both cases, Ivan Fedorov takes an active part in the work, as evidenced by the publications. It is believed that the king appointed him a student of Messingame on the advice of Metropolitan Macarius.
"Moscow Apostle" by Ivan Fedorov It is not without reason that the publishing house’s full-fledged debut work was a book of a religious nature, as was the case with Johannes Guttenberg. The church of those years was significantly different from today's churches. Then the priority was the education of the people, and all textbooks were in one way or another connected with the sacred scriptures.
It is worth mentioning that the Moscow Printing Yard has more than once become a victim of arson. It was rumored that this was the work of monastic scribes who saw competition in book printing that could reduce the need for them or, at least, the cost of the services provided by the monks. They were partly right.
In 1568, by decree of the Tsar, Fedorov moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. On the way, Ivan stops in the city of Zabludov, located in the Grodno Povet. He was sheltered by the former military leader Grigory Khodkevich. Having learned about what Fedorov was doing, Khodkevich, as an active statesman, asked the pioneer printer to help open a local printing house. The opening of the Zabludovskaya printing house took place in the same year.
Having printed several test “books” (each of which had no more than 40 unnumbered pages and no imprint), the workers of the Zabludovskaya printing house, under the leadership of Fedorov, published their first and, in fact, only work - the book “The Teacher's Gospel”. This happens in 1568-1569.
After this, the publishing house stopped working, because, according to Khodkiewicz, more important things arose. By these words he meant changes in the civil and political life of the country associated with the signing of the Union of Lublin in 1569, which led to the unification of Lithuania and Poland into a single country - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
This news did not please Fedorov, so he decided to move to Lvov to open his own printing house there. But even here he was disappointed - the local rich were not eager to invest their finances in book printing, and Ivan did not find support from the clergy - the local priests were committed to copying books by hand.
Nevertheless, Fedorov managed to gain some money, and he began to print books, sell them in Lvov, Krakow and Kolomyia, and print new ones with the proceeds. In 1570, Fedorov published the Psalter.
In 1575, Ivan was offered the post of manager of the Derman Holy Trinity Monastery. Fedorov agreed to this position, believing that printing should be left in the past. However, just two years later, the pioneer printer was busy building a new printing house at the request (and finances) of Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky.
Book by Ivan Fedorov "Ostrozh Bible" The Ostroh printing house published a number of educational books: “ABC”, “Primer” (an expanded and revised edition of “ABC”) and “Greek-Russian Church Slavonic book for reading”. In 1581, an edition of the Ostrog Bible was published, which became the third landmark book in Fedorov’s biography (the previous two were “Apostle” and “Psalter”).
After the publication of the Ostroh Bible, Fedorov handed over the reins of management of the printing house to his eldest son, and he himself began to travel on business trips around Europe - sharing his experience with foreign colleagues, learning about new discoveries and developments, presenting his projects to high-ranking persons (including King Rudolf II of Germany). You can get acquainted with examples of Fedorov’s works on the Internet - photos of surviving publications are posted in the public domain.
Personal life
There is also virtually no information about Fedorov’s personal life. It is known that Ivan was married and that he had two sons, the eldest of whom also became a book printer (and even received the appropriate nickname Drukar, translated from Ukrainian as “printer”). Fedorov's wife died before her husband left Moscow. There is a theory according to which she died just during the birth of her second son. The baby also did not survive.
Death
Ivan died on December 5, 1583. This happened during another business trip to Europe. Fedorov’s body was taken to Lviv, where it was buried in a cemetery located on the territory of the Church of St. Onuphrius.
- In those years when the first printer lived, surnames in the current sense had not yet taken root. Therefore, on the imprint of his publications, as well as in individual business papers, Ivan signed differently: Ivan Fedorov (“Apostle”, 1564), Ivan Fedorovich Moskvitin (“Psalter”, 1570), Ivan, Fedorov’s son, from Moscow (“Ostrog Bible”, 1581).
- In addition to church services and book printing, Fedorov made multi-barreled mortars and cast cannons.
- Ivan Drukar, Fedorov’s son, died three years after his father’s death. This happened under unclear circumstances, but some blame the same monastic scribes (which is unlikely).
- There is a theory according to which Fedorov is far from the first book printer in Rus' - they tried printing before, but the results were much worse, so the typographic craft did not take root from the first try.
Memory
- In 1909, a monument to Fedorov was erected next to the Printing House building.
- In 1933, the image of Ivan Fedorov first appeared on a stamp. It appeared again in 1983 and 2010.
- In 1941, director Grigory Levkoev made the film “The First Printer Ivan Fedorovich.”
- 1977 was the year the Ivan Fedorov Museum opened in Lviv. It was later damaged by a group of religious fanatics, but museum staff and volunteer assistants managed to restore the building and most of the exhibits.
- In 1983, the mint issued a commemorative coin with Fedorov's profile in memory of the 400th anniversary of his death.
- In many cities of Russia and Ukraine there are streets named after Ivan Fedorov.
(or Fedorovich), otherwise Ivan Drukar - deacon, considered to be the first printer in Russia; mind. December 5, 1583 Now there is almost no doubt that F. in the strict sense of the word cannot be called a Russian pioneer printer: not to mention the fact that there is clear evidence of the existence of printing masters in Moscow earlier, several printed books are known to the bibliography, undoubtedly published before the appearance of its first edition and precisely in Moscow. Nothing precise is known about F.’s origins and life before acting as a typographer. Some guess that he was a Muscovite by birth, others give faith to the dark news about his origin from the village. Nikola Gostuni, Likhvinsky district, Kaluga province. He becomes known to history as the widowed deacon of the Nikolo-Gostun Kremlin Church, who, together with Peter Mstislavets, the Tsar and M. Macarius entrusted in 1563 with the establishment of a printing house in Moscow. This commission presupposes his complete knowledge of typographic art by that time and, on this side, fame to the Metropolitan and the Tsar, and the afterwords to the publications written by him testify to his erudition in patristic and modern literature. Where, when and under what conditions F. could learn his art, these questions remain open, although they are often raised in the subject literature. Its activities began in 1563, after a printing house was built with royal funds, tools and fonts were prepared, and assistants, “slanders,” were recruited or trained. On April 19 of this year, he, together with Peter M., began “first” to print the Apostle, which was published on March 1, 1564, in a very typographically perfect form. On September 2, 1565, the Book of Hours was begun and on October 29 of the same year, the last work of printers in Moscow. After this, something incomprehensible happened to them. Despite the patronage of the tsar (M. Macarius was no longer alive), the printers suffered persecution from the ignorant, were accused of heresy and, after the printing house was set on fire by enemies, they fled to Lithuania. This flight, presumably, was not very hasty, since the fugitives took with them a lot of government printing material, and F. took, in addition, his children, of whom there were several and among whom were minors (of whom the name of one eldest son is known , Ivan, who later helped his father in printing). In Lithuania, thanks to the efforts of the Lithuanian hetman G. A. Khodkevich, the printers received a good reception from the king and the lords of the Lithuanian Rada. This could have been at the end of 1565 or the beginning of 1566 in Vilna or in the middle of 1567 in Grodno, because at the implied time only in these years the Lithuanian diets were held in the indicated cities in the presence of Sigismund Augustus. Khodkevich sheltered the fugitives, kept them for a long time and even gave F. “a lot of everything” in the vicinity of Zabludov. Soon in Zabludov or, perhaps, in the aforementioned village, at the expense of the same hetman, F. opened a printing house, in which on March 17, 1569, together with Mstislavets, he printed the Teaching Gospel, and in 1570 alone - the Followed Psalter. 
Old age, illness and various difficulties forced Khodkiewicz to close the printing house. F. was forced to live for some time in his village and engage in agriculture, but, as he himself says, the attraction to “God’s chosen work,” through which he was called to scatter spiritual seeds throughout the universe and distribute spiritual food to everyone according to rank, did not allow him peace. In 1572, at the height of the pestilence, along a difficult and long road, enduring all kinds of hardships, with children and printing property, he was transported to Lvov. Here, with tears and humiliation, as alms, he begs a small amount of money from the poor part of the townspeople and, despite the opposition of the Lviv carpentry shop and the city council, who did not allow him to keep a carpenter who did not belong to the workshop and carry out the necessary carpentry work, he will equip the 1573 own topography and on February 15 of the following year published in Moscow type by the Apostle. Whether disputes with the workshop, or financial difficulties (in 1574 F. mortgaged his printing house for the first time) forced him on March 2, 1575 to enter the service of the prince. Konstantin Ostrozhsky was the “spravets” or “holder” (manager) of the Dermansky monastery that belonged to the prince. On March 25, 1575, he was in Lvov and issued a power of attorney to conduct his affairs, still calling himself a Lvov resident. On August 9 of the same year, an entry was made in the Lutsk city books about his promise as the ruler of the Derman monastery to give satisfaction for the robbery committed by the monastery people on the estate of the Spasovsky gentlemen. On August 16, he was personally present in the Lvov court. April 2, 1576 by order of Prince. Ostrozhsky, at the head of an armed crowd of monastic servants, raids the Spasovsky estate, as a result of which a complaint appears in the Lutsk city books against him for beating and robbing lords and their peasants. The same thing happens, without the prince’s order, on June 26 of the same year. Apparently, at the end of 1576 F. left Derman and moved to Ostrog. It seems that from here, no later than March 1577, he left for Turkey and Wallachia, in all likelihood on the instructions of Prince. Constantine, with the aim of acquiring in the local Greek and Bulgarian monasteries correct lists of sacred books for the publication of the Bible planned by the prince and inviting persons capable of editing the text of this publication. In April 1577, F. visited Lvov, where he left 300 zlotys to be sent to Krakow for paper supplied from there. There we meet him on June 15 of the same year, when he is present in court in the case of a certain Sedelnik, on October 22 of the same year, when his obligations to some Serb from Sochava are repaid, and on March 2, 1579. , when he gives his son a power of attorney to conduct his affairs and pawns the printing house with all the accessories and books to the Lvov Jew Yakubovich. In 1580, F. worked in the princely Ostrog printing house, from where he published the Psalter with the New Testament and the famous Ostrog Bible that year. On May 5, 1581, he published the Chronology of Andrei Rymsha and on August 12 he reprinted the title page and the publication of the Bible. On February 3, 1582, he was already in Lviv permanently. His departure from Ostrog was preceded or was a consequence of some unpleasant scores with the prince. Konstantin, since the prince, upon F.’s arrival in Lvov, seized part of his property. In Lvov, F. is busy equipping a new drukarny. He orders his student, master Grin Ivanovich, who was brought from Ostrog, two new fonts, buys paper, looks for money for upcoming expenses, and so on. The sudden flight of Grin, who returned only on February 3, 1583, and other circumstances prevent him from finishing his preparations and getting down to business. In January 1583, he accepted an order in Krakow for the supply of a small copper cannon to the government, received from the king’s sums money for the return to Lvov and an allocation for the purchase there of the materials necessary for casting the cannon. It is unknown whether he fulfilled this order. In December of this year, F. died. A posthumous inventory of his property revealed a large stock of unprinted or defective copies of the Bible brought from Ostrog and some ready-made typesetting on one sheet of text, probably prepared for correcting the same Bible. The drukarnya, mortgaged by F. to the Jew Yakubovich, was bought in 1785 by the Lviv brotherhood and served as the foundation of the Lviv fraternal printing house; a new one, made by Green, was purchased by the Mamonichs for their printing house in Vilna.
In the center of Moscow, near the walls of the ancient Kitai-Gorod, on a high pedestal stands a bronze figure of a man dressed in a long ancient caftan. The hair, caught with a strap, falls onto the shoulders. His face is serious and concentrated: he is reading a page of a newly printed book.
The name is carved on the stone of the monument - Ivan Fedorov.
Excerpt from the book The First Printer Ivan Fedorov by B. Gorbachevsky
Tsar Ivan the Terrible ordered the construction of a sovereign printing yard in the center of Moscow, near the Kremlin, in the Kitay-Gorod area, on Nikolskaya Street, where the production of books could begin.
It took a lot of time to do this. With great difficulty, Ivan Fedorov and his faithful assistant Pyotr Timofeev created the first printing press...
But then the day came when the first printed book in Rus' was ready. The Tsar ordered to bring her to his white-stone Kremlin...
Ivan Fedorov carefully unfolded the canvas and took out a thick book bound in durable leather. Slowly he handed his creation to the king.
The first printed book "Apostle" Ivan Fedorov had difficulty hiding his excitement. What will the king say? Will he like the book that took so much time and effort to print? It took ten months to print the book, and the fate of the entire printing business depended on one royal word...
Ivan Vasilyevich silently took the book in his hands. Opening the leather binding, he slowly flipped through page by page and read aloud the full title of the book, which is now called “The Apostle.”
The first page is beautiful: it shows a man sitting between two columns copying a book. The king gazes intently at the drawing, touches the pages with his fingers, and sedately reads the text. The book is printed clearly and clearly. Letter to letter. Line to line. Not like in written books.
The first page of the book "Apostle" The capital letters are printed in red paint - cinnabar, and the text - in black paint. In front of each part of the book there is a patterned screensaver - a drawing depicting lush grass and leaves on a black field. Cedar cones hang on thin branches among the leaves...
Ivan Vasilyevich reached the last sheet - everything was in place, not a single mistake. At the end of the book I read that it was published on March 1, 1564. Printers mention their works very modestly...
Grozny's face brightened. Ivan Fedorov understood: he liked the book.
- Well, they save their honor with their heads, okay, I printed the book. He pleased the Tsar,” he praises Ivan Fedorov.
The tsar gave a sign to one of the boyars and ordered him to bring books from his library to the chamber. They brought them. He called the boyars closer to him and laughed:
- But our books are no worse! The Drukhari did not disgrace the honor of the Russian land.
Ivan Fedorov published many books, but the main one is “The ABC” (1574).
Of course, his “ABC” is different from modern ones. It contained the necessary rules of grammar and introduced children not only to letters and numbers. It contained many instructive instructions and sayings from the Bible - the most famous book of all time.
Blessed is the man who has gained wisdom, and the man who has gained understanding. *** If you forgive people for their sins, then your Heavenly Father will also forgive you, and if you do not forgive people for their sins, then your Father will not forgive you your sins either. *** And why do you look at the speck in your brother’s eye, but do not feel the beam in your own eye? Or how will you say to your brother: Let me take the speck out of your eye, but there is a beam in your eye? Hypocrite! First take the beam out of your own eye, and then you will see how to remove the speck from your brother’s eye. *** Do not cause offense, but endure the infliction patiently. *** Before sunset, make peace with those with whom you have to fall out.
Drukar - typographer, printer, book printer.
Foreign - the same as foreign
