A word taken separately has no more than one meaning, but potentially it has many meanings that are realized and clarified in a person’s living speech. The actual use of a word is therefore always a process of selecting the desired meaning from a whole system of emerging alternatives, highlighting some and inhibiting other connections (Luria, 1969, 1975). L. S. Vygotsky writes that “the real meaning of a word is not constant. In one operation the word appears with one meaning, in another it acquires a different meaning” (Vygotsky, 1956, p. 369). The meaning of a word is the second component of the semantics of a word. The meaning, in contrast to the meaning of a word, is understood as its individual meaning, which the word acquires for a person in each specific situation.
A. N. Leontiev noted that “meaning is a reflection of reality, regardless of a person’s individual personal attitude towards it” (Leontiev, 1972. P. 290). The meaning of a word really exists and is realized by a person in a certain activity, and in this activity the word acquires meaning, that is, a subjective meaning for a person. Meaning is initially social and acts as a fixator of social experience. For example, professional experience is a stable social experience, so it is clear that people of different professions use the same word in different meanings. A. N. Leontyev wrote that “meaning cannot be taught, meaning is taught,” and it is generated not by the meaning of the word, but by life itself (Leontyev, 1972, p. 292).
It is important to note one more property of meaning, which L. S. Vygotsky wrote about. This is the connection of meaning with the entire word as a whole, but not with each of its sounds, just as the meaning of a phrase is connected with the entire phrase as a whole, and not with its individual words.
The meaning of a word depends on the totality of a person’s knowledge, his life and emotional experience, and his personal qualities. Therefore, the meaning of the word is more mobile than the meaning, dynamic and, in fact, inexhaustible. However, a prerequisite for mutual understanding between people is the meaning of the word, since it is a generalized reflection of the objective objective content of phenomena, it is fixed in the language system and thanks to this acquires stability.
The meaning of a word cannot be separated from the sound side of the word, as was typical for classical linguistics. Sounds are material carriers of the intangible meaning of a word. A. A. Potebnya wrote on this occasion that “every word as a sound sign of meaning is based on a combination of sound and meaning” (Potebnya, 1905. P. 203).
The carrier of meaning is always a sensory image, the material carrier of the word - motor, sound, graphic. For an adult native speaker of the language, the material carrier seems to fade away (but does not disappear) and is almost not realized, and the content of the word, its meaning, is always in the foreground. And only in some cases - in poetry, when teaching language (when the word becomes the subject of action) and in some forms of aphasia, the word seems to become meaningless, loses its meaning, and vice versa, its material carrier begins to be recognized. It is known that in different forms of aphasia, different material carriers of the meaning of a word are disrupted. The position on the material carriers of words in modern speech psychology allows us to understand the mechanism of violation of the meaning of words in aphasia.
Knowledge and correct understanding of the semantics of a word, its components such as meaning and meaning, is an important tool and a powerful tool in the hands of an aphasiologist in studying and overcoming aphasia. In aphasia, it is not enough to state a violation of the understanding of words, the presence of verbal paraphasia and paragnosia, as is often customary in practice; it is necessary to establish exactly what is impaired - understanding the meaning or understanding of the meaning of words - and what remains intact. It is important to take into account such characteristics of meaning as its individuality and connection with a person, the mobility and diversity of the meaning of a word, on the one hand, and the stability of the meaning of a word, its relevance to the entire society speaking a given language, on the other hand; This knowledge will allow us to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms of speech impairment in aphasia and will allow us to find the necessary methods to overcome the speech defect. Thanks to the word meaning that words carry, speech acquires another important, fourth - cognitive, cognitive - function. Further, the meaning of a word, its meaning could only appear due to and as a result of the objective attribution of the word, which is the most important characteristic of the word and the third component of its semantics.
The word replaces things - objects, objects, phenomena; it represents them, denoting the object itself or its properties, characteristics, qualities. The objective attribution of a word underlies the fifth - nominative - function of speech. S. L. Rubinstein wrote that a word, being a reflection of an object, is connected with it by an internal connection due to the common content. This connection is mediated through the generalized content of the word - through a concept or image. It is impossible to separate the meaning of a word and its subject relevance - they are interconnected. These are two successive links in the process of using a word (Rubinstein, 1946). This function of speech, more than its other aspects, is connected with the sensory basis of the word. The nominative function of speech, believed L. S. Vygotsky, is not semasiological, meaningful. “The word here performs a nominative, indicating function. It points to a thing. In other words, the word here is not a sign of some meaning with which it is associated in thinking, but a sign of a sensually given thing...” (Vygotsky, 1956, p. 194).
Meaning and meaning of the word- The meaning of a word from the psychological side is nothing more than a generalization or concept. The meaning of a word is not constant; it changes as the child develops. The meaning of a word is the totality of all psychological facts that arise in our minds thanks to the word. The meaning of a word always turns out to be a dynamic, fluid, complex formation that has several zones of varying stability. Meaning is only one of the zones of the complex meaning that a word acquires in the context of any speech, and, moreover, the zone that is the most stable, unified and accurate.
A word easily changes its meaning in different contexts. Meaning, on the contrary, is that fixed and unchanging point that remains stable despite all changes in the meaning of the word. The enrichment of a word with meaning, which it absorbs from the entire context, constitutes the basic law of the dynamics of meanings.
Meaning is a stable system of generalizations behind a word, the same for all people, and this system may have different depth, generality, and breadth of coverage of the objects it denotes, but it necessarily retains an unchanged core - a certain set of connections.
An adult has both aspects of a word: its meaning and its meaning. He knows the established meaning of a word and at the same time can each time select the desired system of connections from a given meaning in accordance with the situation.
In the process of ontogenesis, the subject attribution of a word is a product of long-term development. At the early stages, the word is woven into the situation, gesture, facial expressions, intonation, and only under these conditions acquires its objective relevance. Then the objective reference of the word is gradually freed from these conditions, and only at subsequent stages of the child’s development the word acquires a clear, stable objective reference. But the meaning of the word develops even after the objective reference has reached its stability. This means that our consciousness changes its semantic and systemic structure. At an early stage of child development, it is affective in nature, reflecting the world first emotionally. At the next stage, consciousness begins to have a visual-effective character, and only at the final stage does consciousness acquire an abstract verbal-logical character.
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Beautiful words about life with meaning
No person can abandon us, because initially we do not belong to anyone but ourselves.
Death is not scary, but sad and tragic. To be afraid of the dead, cemeteries, morgues is the height of idiocy. We should not be afraid of the dead, but feel sorry for them and their loved ones. Those whose lives were interrupted without allowing them to accomplish something important, and those who remained forever to mourn the departed.
But there are no chance meetings... This is either a test... or a punishment... or a gift of fate...
You shouldn't go back to the past, it will never be the same as you remember.
If you really need something, life will definitely give it to you... There is only one way to achieve it - to act.
Appreciate those with whom you can be yourself. Without masks, omissions and ambitions. And take care of them, they were sent to you by fate. After all, there are only a few of them in your life.
Human life falls into two halves: during the first half they strive forward to the second, and during the second they strive back to the first.
Sometimes we are separated from happiness by one call... One conversation... One confession...
Beautiful words with meaning about love
Winners in life always think in the spirit: I can, I want, I. Losers, on the other hand, focus their scattered thoughts on what they could have, could do, or what they cannot do. In other words, winners always take responsibility, while losers blame circumstances or other people for their failures.
Friends are like food - you need them every day. Friends are like medicine; you look for them when you feel bad. There are friends, like a disease, they themselves look for you. But there are friends like air - you can’t see them, but they are always with you.
Time is a great teacher, but, unfortunately, it kills its students.
When you feel good and have fun, you are surrounded by a lot of people, but as soon as you feel sad or something happens in your life and you really need help... the number of people decreases sharply and the people who truly remain are those who value and value you.
When letting go of a person who is very dear to you, you always wish him only the best, but when you see him happy without you, your heart begins to slowly sink...
And it can be difficult. But that's life. And endure... And not break... And smile. Just smile.
Life has changed so much, and the world has deteriorated so much, that when in front of you is a pure, sincere person who wants to be around, you look for a catch in this.
If life loses meaning, take risks.
Even after 100 unsuccessful attempts, don’t despair, because 101 can change your life.
Beautiful words with meaning, short
Errors are the punctuation marks of life, without which, like in the text, there will be no meaning.
If you value your life, remember that others value theirs no less.
A friend who has achieved power is a lost friend.
A person who throughout his entire life always considers others to blame, not himself, for everything, is also unhappy in his own way.
As a rule, you can judge a person by what he laughs at.
All troubles are sent to us so that, looking for a way out of them, we begin our spiritual development and change something in ourselves for the better.
All joys are sent to us in order to show how wonderful life is when we are on the right path.
Both fable and life are valued not for their length, but for their content.
Sometimes it's good to lose everything to understand what you're really missing...
Or why sometimes people don't say what they want to say?
Surely everyone has encountered such problems at one time or another. One of the reasons for these difficulties is that our brain works on two levels: on one level, the words with which we communicate are selected, and on the other, their meanings are analyzed. Word analysis has a surface structure, with the help of which the choice of words and intonation are distinguished, and a deep structure, with the help of which the hidden semantic meanings of words are analyzed.
We tend to focus on the semantic meaning of the words (deep structure) that are spoken to us, while paying little or no attention to surface analysis. For example, you don't wear a watch, but you know what time it is because you just looked at the street clock. And if I stop you on the street at this moment and ask: “Don’t you have a watch?”, then you will probably answer: “It’s about four now.”
This will end our conversation, and we will both be satisfied, despite the fact that you did not answer my question. Your statement indicates that you understood the deeper meaning of the question. Indeed, I was not interested in the very fact of whether you have a watch, but what time it is at a given moment. Or rather, I wanted to know what time it was, but the very wording of my question concerned whether you had a watch. If, on the contrary, you were to concentrate on the superficial meaning of my question, then you would answer: “I don’t have a watch.” Your answer would probably confuse me. And if not, then I would think that there is something wrong with you.
Let me give you another example: I once had lunch with a friend of mine who conducts research in one of the clinics and is also the author of several books. We were talking about books and I asked her, “Can you tell me who your editor is?” To which my friend replied: “Her name is Jane Doe.” If she answered “Yes, I can,” then I would have to ask another question to find out the editor’s name. In answering my question, my friend got to the heart of it, although if she had not wanted to name her editor, she would, of course, have said in response: “No, I can’t tell you that.” Thus, it turns out that a person reacts either to the surface meaning of your question or to its deep meaning; Moreover, what he will react to depends on his opinion regarding your question.
In fact, from a person’s speech you can learn things about him that he himself is not aware of. From this we can conclude that increased attention to the surface meaning and deeper meaning of what is said to you will help you better understand people and learn more useful information about them.
Experts believe that the form (surface structure) of words can be just as important for determining a person’s character and qualities as their deep semantic structure. The best professionals, who are said to be mind readers, simply pay more attention to the words and expressions a person uses in conversation.
By paying more attention to what is said to you, you can become more aware that the hidden meaning of words can tell you a lot about the people who speak those words.
One of the simplest and most powerful ways to become more sensitive to words is to simply continually think about their surface meaning and deeper meaning whenever you hear them. At first, the need to carry out additional analysis may tire you out, so it’s better to start by remembering past conversations and the words that were spoken in them. You should consider both what your interlocutor said and what you answered. You can keep a special journal where you will write down the hidden meanings of words that you discover. You will probably be surprised at how quickly you will gain the ability to determine the true meaning of what people say.
Insidious tongue
In everyday life, we all come across expressions that at first glance are ordinary polite phrases, but upon further examination it turns out that in their essence they conceal the most severe insults. Indeed, it often happens that many “courtesy” turns out to be sophisticated ridicule.
For example, while working, you may hear the following: “I see how worried you are about the company’s affairs.”
The superficial meaning of this phrase is that the person contacting you really sees that you are interested in the affairs of the company, its financial stability, etc. But this same phrase can have another, deeper and more offensive meaning:
You don't care about the company, and all I'm thinking about is how to keep it afloat,
You should pay more attention to the company's affairs.
Another phrase may be even more insidious and offensive: “Everyone understands how difficult it is for you to cope with your new job.”
At first glance, it may seem that this phrase really expresses sincere sympathy and that the person who said it wants to cheer you up. However, this same phrase also contains another deeper meaning. This phrase may mean that it has long been clear to everyone that you are a person with mediocre abilities (in other words, mediocrity) who, due to his incompetence, cannot cope with his official duties.
The phrase in question can also mean that everyone knows that you faced serious difficulties in doing this work, so there is no point in trying to hide or deny it.
If you don't feel the ambiguity of these phrases, then you will really have a hard time coping with your new job responsibilities. It should also be noted that under no circumstances should you enter into an argument, that is, you should not respond with “I’m really worried about the company’s affairs...” or “Everyone really knows how hard it is for me.”
If you learn to sense the hidden meaning of phrases, you can easily avoid such pitfalls. To the statements under consideration, it is advisable to respond with the following: “It’s simply amazing to me how people in your position can think that I am not bothered by the affairs of the company...” or “Thank you, I am very grateful to you for your concern for my humble person.” .
You should never forget that every person has sins that he diligently hides, so your hint about the situation in which the person addressing you is will definitely work, making the wit think about what exactly you are hinting at and what you even know about him We can say with complete confidence that for a long time he will no longer have any desire to joke with you. Such a response also perfectly parries the attack, depriving it of any causticity. If you react in this way to the caustic remarks of ill-wishers, they will understand that you are not to be trifled with.
In order to learn to sense the ambiguity of phrases, try recording and analyzing heated conversations that you have witnessed or participated in. The surface meaning and deep meaning of all remarks should be analyzed. When you study a sufficient number of such conversations, you will certainly notice that your sensitivity to linguistic expressions has increased several times. You may also find that this makes it easier for you to work with people, because they see you as a serious opponent in a verbal battle and decide that it is better to live in peace with you. You will feel that you have become more respected, and all this only due to the fact that you have become better able to understand the semantic meanings of various linguistic expressions.
Before moving on to the main topic, one concept should be introduced that will play a significant role in the entire subsequent discussion.
Along with the concept of meaning, modern psychology uses the concept of meaning, which plays a decisive role in the analysis of the most important aspects of the problem of language and consciousness.
For classical linguistics, “meaning” and “sense” were almost synonymous and, as a rule, were used unambiguously. Only very recently in foreign psychology and psycholinguistics have two aspects of the concept of word meaning begun to be distinguished: “referential” meaning, i.e. a meaning that introduces it into a certain logical category, and a “social-communicative” meaning that reflects its communicative functions (Halliday, 1970, 1975; Rommetveit, 1974; etc.).
In Soviet psychology, the distinction between “meaning” and “meaning” was introduced several decades earlier - by L. S. Vygotsky in his classic book “Thinking and Speech,” which was first published in 1934 and became widely known.
By meaning we understand the system of connections that objectively developed in the process of history that stand behind the word. For example, behind the word “inkwell” there is a meaning that we discussed above. As we have already said, the word “inkwell,” which developed in social history, means something related to paint (ink-), to tools (-il-), to containers (-prostrate-). Thus, this word not only points to a specific object, but also subjects it to analysis, introduces it into a system of objective connections and relationships.
By assimilating the meanings of words, we assimilate universal human experience, reflecting the objective world with varying completeness and depth. “Meaning” is a stable system of generalizations behind a word, the same for all people, and this system can only have different depths, different generalizations, different breadth of coverage of the objects it denotes, but it necessarily retains an unchanged “core” - a certain set of connections.
Next to this concept of meaning, we can, however, distinguish another concept, which is usually designated by the term “meaning”. By meaning, in contrast to meaning, we understand the individual meaning of a word, isolated from this objective system of connections; it consists of those connections that are relevant to a given moment and to a given situation. Therefore, if the “meaning” of a word is an objective reflection of the system of connections and relationships, then “meaning” is the introduction of subjective aspects of meaning according to a given moment and situation.
Let's look at an example that illustrates this point. The word "coal" has a certain objective meaning. This is a black object of wood origin, the result of burning trees, having a certain chemical composition, which is based on the element C (carbon). However, the meaning of the word "coal" can be completely different for different people and in different situations. For the housewife, the word “coal” means what is used to light a samovar or what is needed to light the stove. For a scientist, coal is a subject of study, and he highlights the aspect of this meaning of the word that interests him - the structure of coal, its properties. For an artist, this is a tool that can be used to make a sketch, a preliminary sketch of a painting. And for the girl who stained her white dress with coal, the word “coal” has an unpleasant meaning: it is something that gave her an unpleasant experience at the moment.
This means that the same word has a meaning that has objectively developed in history and which is potentially preserved by different people, reflecting things with different completeness and depth. However, along with the meaning, each word has a meaning, by which we mean isolating from this meaning of the word those aspects that are associated with a given situation and the affective attitude of the subject.
That is why modern psycholinguists rightly believe that if “referential meaning” is the main element of language, then “socio-communicative meaning” or “meaning” is the main unit of communication (which is based on the perception of what exactly the speaker wants to say and what motives prompt him to speak) and at the same time the main element of the living, associated with a specific affective situation, use of the word by the subject.
An adult, cultured person has both aspects of a word: its meaning and its meaning. He firmly knows the established meaning of a word and at the same time can each time select the desired system of connections from a given meaning in accordance with a given situation. It is easy to understand that the word “rope” has one meaning for a person who wants to pack a purchase, but for a person who has fallen into a hole and wants to get out of it, it is a means of salvation. Only with some mental disorders, for example with schizophrenia, does the ability to choose the meaning that corresponds to the situation sharply suffer, and if a person who fell into a hole and was thrown a rope talks about the qualities of the rope, say, that “a rope is a simple rope ”, and will reason instead of acting, this will indicate a clear deviation of his psyche from the norm.
So, in a word, along with the meaning, which includes subject reference and meaning itself, i.e. generalization, attribution of an object to known categories, there is always an individual meaning, which is based on the transformation of meanings, the selection from among all the connections behind the word communication system that is relevant at the moment.
Let us now turn to the main topic of interest to us and try to trace how the meaning of a word is formed in the process of child development.
Meaning and Meaning
The analyzed examples indicate that comprehension of a text is a complex process. At the same time, it obeys certain laws determined by the phenomenal features of the functioning of the human brain. How to use these laws for our task: to learn by reading quickly deep and fully understand the text? To find ways to solve this problem, you must first decide what should be understood in the text you are reading. Obviously, to some readers the question itself may seem meaningless: you need to understand everything that is contained in the text. And here an interesting discovery awaits us: there is no need to read the entire text. To understand it, it is enough to read only a certain part of it, which can be conditionally called the “golden core” of the content. This is exactly the 25% of the text that remains after eliminating redundancy.
What is the “core”? To understand this, let's consider the basic semantic (notional) principles of text construction. As modern linguistics has established, texts have a unified internal logical organization. They are built according to uniform logical rules of coherence of presentation.
Rice. 11. Text compression levels
In addition, as we already know, text redundancy reaches 75%. Obviously, the “golden core” that we are talking about carries the main semantic load. And if this is so, then the target process of text transformation, i.e. its compression, during reading can be conditionally considered the selection and formation of this “core”. In Fig. 11 shows a flowchart of the sequence of this operation. The text contains certain information that the reader sees in it.
When describing further transformations, we will proceed from the semantic theory of information developed by the Soviet mathematician and linguist Yu. A. Schrader. According to this theory, the reader, studying information, compares it with the amount of knowledge (also called the thesaurus) that he currently has, and evaluates the incoming information. This means that if at first the reader does not understand the text, then the text does not carry any information for him. If then, even after a long time, having received new knowledge, the reader turns to the same text again, then he already extracts the necessary information from it. What happens to her next? As a result of studying the text, the reader extracts meaning, which is then transformed into meaning. Before analyzing the essence of the process that occurs next, it is necessary to give an explanation: what is meaning and significance? The German mathematician and logician Gottlob Frege was the first to study the concepts of “meaning” and “meaning”.
In 1892, his work “On Sense and Significance” was published, which has not lost its relevance to this day. G. Frege defines meaning as the content of a linguistic expression, that is, it is the thought contained in words. The meaning of a linguistic expression is the essential object that is verbally recorded in the human mind. For example, the meaning of the word Moon is essentially a celestial body or natural satellite of the Earth.
According to the concept of G. Frege, the relationship of a name to what it names or designates is a naming relationship, and the thing that is called is the meaning of this name. Every name always names something (the function of naming, or nomination), and this something is a certain thing. Naturally, there may be unnamed things.
Thus, meaning is an essential property of a name, which is realized through the diverse naming of things. G. Frege calls meaning the difference in the way objects are formally designated by names. Combinations of words like Alexander Pushkin, great Russian poet, poet killed by Dantes different in meaning, but the same in meaning. In language in general and in texts in particular, you can find different ways of using names: teacher - teacher; doctor - doctor; hippopotamus - hippopotamus, etc. These examples provide different information about the same thing. Meaning is what is transmitted and understood in a message as socially significant information and which must be understood unambiguously when receiving the message. Two expressions can have the same meaning, but different meanings, if these expressions differ in the structure of the text implementation. Consider the expressions “5” and “3+2”. The meaning in each of them is different, but the meaning is the same.
Let us turn again to Fig. 11. The final stages of transforming a piece of text involve extracting meaning from the resulting meaning. Does this mean that any text always contains all the components of this scheme? Not at all. However, the content of each of its elements is decreasing. In fact, texts always contain information. There are few meaningless texts to be found. But many meaningful texts do not contain meaning. In the literature on logic, an example of such an empty expression is usually given:
concept expressed in words king of France, makes sense, but in relation to the 20th century. doesn't matter. Are scientific texts with similar content possible? To answer, it is enough to find out whether there is a meaning in the quoted text.
Let's consider some total and, therefore, unique instance “A”. Establishing the identity of an instance with itself can be considered as a mapping that brings the images of “A” in accordance with the prototype of “A”. Instance "A" by definition can only be compared with itself. Therefore, the mapping is internal and, according to Stilov’s theorem, can be represented as a superposition of a topological and subsequent analytical mapping. The set of images “A” constitutes a point system, the elements of which are equivalent points... As the analysis carried out by the Soviet linguist I. P. Sevbo showed, formal coherence and scientific sound do not reduce the emptiness of this text.
Obviously, now we can answer the question of what should be read in texts: you need to be able to find meaning.
TO 
How can one practically learn to highlight meaning? Let's consider another interesting phenomenon. As N.I. Zhinkin showed, the brain of every person already has this ability, since it contains a program for highlighting meaning in any readable text that has meaning. Experiments by psychologists! confirmed that when processing text, the human brain always selects the “core” meaning, regardless of the method of its formal expression or meaning. Thus, in one of the experiments, a group of subjects was asked to press a special button every time the word appeared on the screen doctor, and not respond to the signal if other words appeared, even similar in style, for example speaker. Most subjects coped with
Rice. 12. Brain filtering ability
this task. Then, without warning, the screen showed doctor. Almost everyone pressed the button, although the writing of the word did not in any way resemble the word doctor.
This example is proof that when perceiving textual information, the brain reacts not to the linguistic structure of the word, but to its content. The brain's perception of various word combinations is shown in Fig. 12. Thanks to the presence of an algorithmic filter, the brain does not miss (produces 0 at the output) the phrase “Purple ideas sleep furiously.” For the phrase “Mine is yours, don’t understand,” a corresponding expression is formed. And finally, the brain reacts the same way to words doctor And doctor, whereas for the word “announcer” the output is also 0.
The meaning of a word as a unit of study of speech thinking. Stages of development of word meanings (L.S. Vygotsky). “Double stimulation” technique. Meaning and sense of words
The unit of analysis of speech thinking is a psychological phenomenon that is both speech and thinking - the meaning of words. Meaning is a characteristic of a word, on the other hand, it is a generalized representation of reality. Before the advent of man, speech and thinking evolved separately and independently of each other. Their unification became possible thanks to the emergence of language in human society. Speech thinking emerged at about 2 years of age, when children begin to possess language. How did the meaning of the word develop in ontogenesis? The idea is to model the natural conditions in which the acquisition of human concepts occurs. 1) a person in the surrounding world encounters various objects that may be similar or different from each other in some ways. 2) a person in the surrounding world encounters words that denote these concepts. The concept is formed under conditions of possible correlation of various words with various objects that are denoted by these words. Vygotsky: As a unit of analysis of higher forms of thinking that distinguish humans from animals, one should choose the meaning of the word that reflects “unity of communication and generalization.”
Vygotsky and Luria experimentally substantiated the position according to which the types of verbal thinking are characterized by the types of generalizations that are recorded in the word. The type of thinking can be judged by the structure of meanings functioning in his speech. Then the stages of development of meanings (in sociogenesis and ontogenesis) give names to the forms of thinking: syncretic, complex and conceptual. Children 3-12 years old: stages of speech development: 1) syncret stage . Features: it is impossible to establish objective connections between geometric figures. It is difficult to identify the objective content of the meaning of words used by children. Grouping based on a random feature. 2) complex stage . When selecting geometric shapes, children begin to focus on their objective characteristics. At the same time, not 1 of these signs is common to all figures designated by one word or another. The meaning of words is characterized by a certain objective content, but it cannot be called a concept. Eat 5 types of complexes: associative (children select figures according to a pattern based on several alternating characteristics at once), collection (they do this not on the principle of similarity, but on the principle of complementarity), chain (children begin to select figures based on one characteristic. But at some point they change a feature), diffuse (figures are selected based on overall global similarity), pseudo-concept (selected figures have at least one common feature). 3) concept stage . At least one common feature is detected + they recognize this feature as common. In children, concepts first appear in the form of potential concepts. Their content is characterized by one common feature for a certain group of objects. The development of concepts ends with the formation of true concepts; they are composed of a set of common characteristics. True concepts first appear in children by the age of 11-12 years.
Double stimulation technique– a technique originally developed by L.S. Vygotsky and L.S. Sakharov to study the process of concept formation. It uses two series of stimuli, of which the first performs the function of the object to which the subject’s activity is directed, and the second serves as the function of the signs with the help of which this activity is organized. Thus, in the Vygotsky-Sakharov experiment, figures of various colors, shapes, heights and sizes were used as stimulus-objects, and words written on the back of each of the figures, which were experimental concepts, were used as stimulus-means. The subject had to formulate a concept, gradually revealing its characteristics based on the selection of figures that, in his opinion, were carriers of this concept. In this case, it turned out to be possible to study how the subject uses signs to control his mental processes and how, depending on the way the word is used, the entire process of concept formation proceeds. Subsequently, the technique received a broad methodological understanding as a means of analyzing the development and functioning of higher mental functions in general.
The process of translating a thought into a word lasts over time and goes through 5 successive plans. They can be considered as certain forms of existence of thought. 1 plan– plan of external speech. The thought is presented in its final form - sound expression. Plan 2– plan of meaning of external speech. Thought exists in the meaning of words connected to each other. 3 plan– plan of internal speech. Inner speech is speech for oneself. It is not used for transmission to other people. It is characterized by certain characteristics that distinguish it from external speech (1. internal speech is predicative. There is no subject about which something is being communicated. Because every person knows what he is speaking about. 2. it is abbreviated. It does not consist of fully pronounced words or phrases, but of fragments. 3. the predominance of meaning over meaning). 4 characteristics of the meaning of a word: 1) objectivity. The meaning of a word exists in language independently of the subject, so that the subject must assign these meanings and master them. 2) sustainability. The meaning of a word has an unchanged content. 3) versatility. The same meanings of words for all people. 4) the meaning of words - such contents that exist only outside the contexts of phrases. The meaning of a word is the characteristics opposite to the meaning of words. Meaning of the word: subjectivity. The content depends on the will and desire of the subject; variability; uniqueness; arises and exists only in the context of phrases. The meaning of a word is the subjective, variable and often unique content of a word, acquired by it only in a certain context of phrases. 4 plan- plan of thought. Thought exists in its pure form, without connection with internal and external speech. 5 plan– plan of need – volitional sphere. Any thought that is to be embodied in words arises in connection with his need.
Meanings are simultaneously: 1) the subject of the thinking process (the content of what we are thinking about), 2) a means of thinking (a sign serves as a tool, allowing us to highlight the properties of an object, record and establish new relationships), 3) a product of thinking (as a result of thinking, new values).
Definition and basic processes of memory. Types of memory; their classification capabilities. Memory models. Patterns of memory: forgetting curves, the law of the “edge of the row,” memory and activity, motivation and memorization.
Memory is the mental process of reflecting a person’s experience by remembering, storing and reproducing information.
Memory processes: 1) Memorization is a process aimed at preserving impressions in memory. 2) Preservation is the process of processing, summarizing and systematizing material. 3) Reproduction (remembering) – restoration of previously perceived information in memory. 4) Forgetting is a process aimed at removing information from memory. Forgetting has a positive side - a person frees up his memory to store new information or forgets negative events. 5) Recognition is a memory process that results in a feeling of familiarity when perceiving information.
Types of memory: 1) Depending on the time of storage of the material: instant(3 seconds), short-term(7±2 seconds) is a mandatory intermediate storage and filter that processes the largest amount of information. Short-term memory is very closely related to long-term memory, because... here unnecessary information is eliminated and useful information remains, operational(intermediate) – the information storage time is designed to solve the problem, long-term. 2) Depending on the predominant analyzer: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, motor 3) Genetic (congenital) Lifetime: motor, emotional, figurative, verbal-logical.
The laws of memory are general patterns that characterize the work and structure of human memory:
1) The law of associations: the more diverse connections and associations are identified between parts of complex material, the faster and better the material will be remembered, the longer it will be preserved and the easier it will be recalled.
Types of associations: by similarity, by contrast, by contiguity: mental formations that arose simultaneously or sequentially are perceived together.
2) Ebbinghaus's Law: in the first hours after memorization, there is an active process of forgetting information.
3) “Edge effect”: the beginning and end of information are well remembered.
4) “Zeigarnik effect”: completed tasks are forgotten much faster than unfinished ones.
5) The law of active repetition when memorizing material.
Memorization is a memory process aimed at storing impressions in memory.
Reproduction (remembering) is the restoration in memory of previously perceived information.
Types of memorization depending on the participation of the will:
1) Arbitrary (there is a goal - to remember).
Psychological conditions: creation of a psychological attitude; reasonable repetition; Attentiveness is important for effectiveness.
2) Involuntary (without a goal, but with interest).
3) Mechanical (learning information through repeated repetition).
4) Semantic (based on the search for semantic connections in the material being studied).
Reproduction of information occurs in the same way as memorization occurred.
1. Associationist theory. Association is a connection, connection, explanatory principle of all mental formations. A necessary and sufficient basis for the formation of a connection between 2 impressions is the simultaneity of their appearance in consciousness. According to memory - not as an active process (activity) of a person with objects or their images, but as a mechanically developing product of associations. Types of associations – by contiguity, by similarity, by contrast. Memorization is really connecting something new with what is already in experience. But connections are formed selectively, and associationism does not answer the question of what determines this process.
Representatives of Ass. psychology - Ebbinghaus, Müller, Pilzecker - the first attempts to experimentally study memory. The main subject of the study is the study of the stability, strength and strength of associations. An important contribution to science is the development of Ebbinghaus and his followers of methods for the quantitative study of memory processes.
2. Behaviorism. The global task is to establish unambiguous connections between stimuli and reactions, a problem of skill. Memory is exhausted by the acquisition of various motor and speech skills; studied mainly in an involuntary form. Research on voluntary memory, the central problem is learning by heart. In these works, well-known provisions about the influence of repetition on the success of memorization and its dependence on the volume and nature of the material were confirmed and further developed. New facts were obtained about the dependence of memorization productivity on various kinds of attitudes and motives.
3. Gestalt psychology. Keller, Koffka, Wertheimer, Levin. The basis for the formation of associations is the law of integrity. The whole is not a simple sum of elements; holistic formation - gestalt - is primary in relation to the elements included in it. The leading condition for memorization is the structure of the material. Therefore, to memorize disorganized, meaningless material, an additional initial condition is necessary - the intention of the subject. Gestalt psychologists lost sight of the most important aspect of the process of constructing and consolidating an image - a person’s own activity. Meanwhile, what is important for memorization is not so much the fact of the similarity or difference of elements in itself, but rather the action of the person who discovers these similarities and differences.
4. Personality theories of memory– identified a number of factors influencing the course of memory processes, especially storage: activity, interest, attention, awareness of the task, as well as emotions accompanying the course of memory processes.
5. The idea of the social nature of human memory. Janet, Vygotsky, Luria, Leontiev. Memory processes are understood as a social form of behavior, a specific socially controlled action. Comparative studies of involuntary and voluntary memorization (P.I. Zinchenko, A.A. Smirnov).
6. Structural model of memory. A complex configuration of interacting subsystems that ensure the execution of basic memory functions: fixation, processing and reproduction of mnemonic contents in behavior and consciousness. In modern structural models, the following blocks (subsystems) are distinguished: sensory register(ultra-short-term storage of information of a very large volume. The task is to provide the next block with the opportunity to classify incoming information and send it for further processing. Required to experience the world as a continuous integrity. Forgetting is associated with interference and attenuation), resolver ( part of long-term memory taken externally. Transforming a chaotic flow of information into organized, meaningful units. During the recognition process, long-term memory provides schemas of cognition (standard, prototype, and trait hypotheses) ), working memory ( a memory block in which information circulates that is necessary for the implementation of current activities and/or is present in consciousness. ), long-term memory ( permanent storage of information. Forgetting as such does not exist in long-term memory).
the meaning of the word is:
meaning of the word meaning of the word content side of the word; consists of lexical, grammatical, and sometimes word-formative meanings. Thus, the words tenderness and gentle differ in grammatical meaning; and gentle and snowy coincide in grammatical meaning, differing in lexical meaning. The meaning of the word is being studied semantics.Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006.
Meaning of the word MEANING OF THE WORD. Concepts that are associated (connected) by speakers of kn. language with the idea of a known sound or sound combination that makes up a word. Z.S. can be complex, i.e. disintegrate in the speaker’s consciousness into several Z.; so, with the word “hand” in Russian. concepts are connected: 1. about a known object of thought and 2. about its known relationship to other objects of thought, designated by other words in the same sentence (Z., introduced by the form vinit, fallen). The first Z., i.e. Z.S. as a sign of an object of thought without its relation to other objects of thought, called. basic, and that Z., which is recognized as modifying the basic Z., called. formal. Both the basic and formal words are distinguished by a certain instability, mobility, and the ability to change somewhat with each new use of the word. In relation to the basic z., this instability is explained by the complexity of the basic z. itself; Thus, the concept of words denoting objects, as containers of characteristics, can be broken down into ideas about individual characteristics that are part of a complex representation of the object. So, speaking of oak, we can think about the shape of a growing oak tree, its leaves, acorns, color of bark, color of wood pulp, strength, durability, etc.; each of these partial representations can appear in our thought without being accompanied by other representations as the Z. S. “oak”. Further, the same name can be transferred to other objects due to similarity or contiguity (metaphorical or metonymic transfer of Z.). The same thing happens with words representing the names of individual characteristics of an object (cf. the verb “go” when applied to a person, train, watch, time, business, etc.). Frequent use of the word in Ph.D. one of the non-original words can lead to its displacement from the language in the original word, i.e. to change Z. words.
N. D. Literary Encyclopedia: Dictionary of Literary Terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925
