Today, we associate the word “forum” with all sorts of discussions that float on the World Wide Web. On the forum you can discuss a topic that interests you, express your opinion, find like-minded people, etc. But many do not even think about the true meaning and origin of this word, the roots of which, as it turns out, originate from ancient Rome.
The Roman Forum was known throughout Italy; the fate of people, cities and countries was decided within its walls. Here important issues and tasks of the ancient empire were discussed, money was changed, politicians spoke, laws were proclaimed and adopted. No important decision could come into force unless it was proclaimed at the Forum of Ancient Rome. Gladiators held competitions in the square, some of them were awarded honors, while others could be executed in front of a large crowd of people. Many ancient Roman temples and palaces were built here, each of which was unique and reflected the culture of that time.
The Forum itself represents a huge area measuring 500 square meters, which has an interesting history and a whole complex of architectural monuments of the Roman Empire. Most of the temples of Ancient Rome were destroyed by people and the passage of time, but there are also those that can be seen now. It is also called an open-air museum, which millions of tourists strive to visit.
History of origin
The Forum of Ancient Rome as such arose during the reign of the great Tarquin the Ancient. He ordered to drain the lowland, which was located between four hills. On the north side it was the Quirinal Hill, on the south it was the Palatine, on the east it was Esquiline, and on the west it was called the Capitol. To drain the area, which was saturated with springs, the world's first sewer system was built. Workers installed drains to drain water and a Great Cloaca that was connected to a drainage device. The Romans still use the ancient Cloaca Major to drain storm water.
When the area was dry, construction began. Initially, the Roman Forum was intended for trade and fairs. Therefore, they were the first to build shopping arcades with many shops, and a little later, stands for speeches by politicians and influential Romans, as well as places for celebrations and executions, which always took place in public. Every year the Romanum Forum grew, you could buy anything at the big bazaar, and residents from all nearby regions came here. Over the centuries, the Forum has experienced its rise and fall, it was destroyed and revived again. Today, most of its territory is in ruins, but there are also surviving buildings and structures that breathe history and take us back to the ancient world.
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Temples of Ancient Rome
Along with platforms for speakers, they began to build cathedrals, temples and roads leading to the center of the Eternal City. A royal residence was created at the foot of the hills, and estates were built for the aristocrats and nobles of the city. The architecture of the Roman Empire, which was created by ancient masters, cannot leave anyone indifferent. Even from the half-destroyed buildings and ruins, one can judge the great culture of the ancient people.
Temple of Venus the Purifier
According to scientists, the Temple of Venus the Purifier was one of the first to be built. This was a great shrine for ancient warriors who underwent the sacrament of purification here. In the temple, not only men were cleansed and blessed, but also the captive Sabian women, whom the Romans brought with them as trophies. The building itself has not survived to this day; its external characteristics can only be judged from some fragments that were found during archaeological excavations.
Temple of the Dioscuri
In parallel with the development of the city (5-2 centuries BC), wars did not subside, which left a great imprint on the appearance and culture of the capital. The Phoenician and Roman rulers could not agree with each other, as a result of which fierce battles were fought. Many buildings were destroyed and new ones were built in their place. It was during this period that the Temple of the Dioscuri was built. It was a place of worship for the two sons of Jupiter, their names were Castor and Pollux. Today, the Temple of the Dioscuri is best known for the remaining three columns that stand majestically in the ancient city. They are also called “Three Sisters”, who are always inseparable.
Temple of Saturn
The Great Shrine was built in the 4th century BC. by the Romans, in honor of a memorable event, namely the destruction of the power of the Etruscan leader Tarquinius. The temple is located in the southwestern part of the Forum of Ancient Rome, and has an interesting history. Initially, the building housed treasures from all over the Empire. Every year a celebration called Saturnalia was held here. On this day, the boundaries between slaves and kings disappeared, everyone was equal. In addition, the master could even serve the slave and fulfill his wishes. People gave each other gifts, feasted and had fun. Later, treasurers calculated the budget there and collected taxes. The building was subjected to great destruction and fire several times, but it was rebuilt and put in order. Despite the durability of the Temple of Saturn, the entire structure cannot be seen today. But it’s worth looking at just the columns that have remained to this day and understanding that this was a grandiose structure.
Temple of Concordia
Often, squabbles and discord occurred between slaves and nobles. Very often disputes developed into hatred and enmity. But despite this, they had to coexist, so they depended on each other. It was in honor of the reconciliation of the nobility and the poor that the Temple of Concordia was built, which was revered by the Romans as the Goddess of Concord. It was built in the 4th century BC. in the western part of the capital's center.
Temple of Vespasian
During the same period, another Temple of Ancient Rome was erected - the Shrine of Vespasian. It was built in honor of the emperor who ruled at that time and his son. After their deaths, the temple contained statues of the two emperors. The building was quite spacious and had a rectangular shape. Today you can see not only the ruins of the building, but also 15-meter columns that somehow survived.
Temple of Caesar
The great Emperor Julius Caesar is known throughout the world as the first ruler of the Roman Empire, which until 27 BC was considered a republic. He, together with his successor Octavian Augustus, made a great contribution to the development of culture not only in the capital, but throughout the empire. The Roman Forum flourished during their reign and became even stronger as the place where destinies and major political and religious events were decided. After the death of Caesar, his body was buried, and on this site a temple was created in honor of the great emperor. The Arch of Augustus was built not far from the temple. It displayed all the victorious events that occurred during their reign. Today, only bulky blocks remain of the temple, which have preserved the secrets of that time.
Temple of Venus and Roma
Another ruler of the empire, Hadrian, also made a significant contribution to the architecture of Ancient Rome. He ordered the construction of a large palace in the eastern part of the Roman Forum, dedicated to the patronesses of the capital. They were the goddesses Venus and Roma. A large plot of land was chosen for construction, bordering the Colosseum. The building itself looks quite unusual and unlike other buildings. Externally, it looked like two huge domes, according to the architect’s idea, symbolizing the goddesses of the temple, which stood opposite each other. The temple was guarded by large columns that were clearly lined up around the building. This landmark can be seen very well even now. Particularly well preserved is one part of the building, which during Christian times was converted into the Church of Santa Francesca Romana.
Temple of Vesta
In the southeast of the Forum of Ancient Rome, there is an area that is dedicated to the goddess Vesta. This was the temple itself and the house of the Vestals. The goddess herself was considered the guardian of the hearth, so there had to always be a fire burning in the temple. Initially, he was supported by the king’s daughters, and a little later by girls called Vestals. The honor of becoming a Vestal Virgin and keeping the fire burning at home was not given to everyone. Girls were selected only from noble families before they turned 15 years old. They were not allowed to enter into any relationships with men until they were 30 years old. If any of the girls disobeyed, she was immediately buried in the ground alive. The Vestals stood out from the crowd with special outfits and were highly revered by the ancient Romans. For a convict who was being led to death, a meeting with the Vestal Virgin meant the revocation of the sentence and release.
All that remains of the house of the Vestals is the atrium and several statues of the high priestesses. During recent archaeological excavations, fragments of the temple itself were also discovered.
Temple of Anthony and Faustina
The temples of Ancient Rome were always created in honor of great events, achievements and exploits. Love has always worked wonders and inspired all lovers to exploits. A striking example of this is the Temple of Anthony and Faustina, built in 141. It was built by Anthony Pius, who greatly missed his dead wife. The beautiful building has been very well preserved to this day thanks to its use as the Church of St. Lawrence in the 11th century. The ancient basilica was restored and maintained in its original form for a long time. Today, a rectangular building with a row of columns involuntarily takes us back to ancient times and fascinates us with its superiority.
Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine
The huge structure could dwarf even the most famous modern buildings. The use of marble, precious stones and metals in the construction and furnishing of the building cannot fail to impress. The first stone for the construction of the temple was laid by Emperor Maxentius in 308. During his government, the basilica was completely rebuilt. Its length was 100 and its width was 65 meters. It was the largest building in the ancient city. Initially, the temple was decorated with a sculpture of Maxentius, and after his removal from the throne - of Constantine, after whom the basilica was named.
In addition to the temples, on the territory of the Roman Forum there are a large number of arches and historical places from which you can read the history of the Roman Empire. The images tell about wars and truces, victories and defeats, life and death of the ancient people. The unique architecture of the Roman Empire is like a chronicle that reflects the culture, structure, rules and life principles of the ancient era.
To visit a unique open-air museum, it is enough to purchase a single ticket, which is intended for visiting places such as the Colosseum, Palatine Hill and the Forum of Ancient Rome itself. If you plan to thoroughly explore all the historical buildings, then you simply cannot do without the help of a qualified guide.
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During the era of the Roman Empire, the pantheon of gods recognized by the official religion expanded. It included the cults of the Egyptian gods Isis and Serapis, the Asia Minor Ma-Bellona, the Iranian god Mithras, especially popular among warriors, and a number of Syrian solar cults. There were other cults, among which Judaism stood out and prevailed by the 4th century. Christianity. The cult of emperors occupied a special place. The diversity of the religious life of the empire was reflected in religious architecture, where, along with temples to the ancient Roman gods, temples to deified emperors, eastern gods, mithraeums and synagogues were built. Most of the temples are from the 1st and 2nd centuries. dedicated to the main gods of the Roman pantheon and emperors. Old temples were often rebuilt in new forms. During the imperial period, temples basically repeated the types used under the republic - prostyle, Italic type and peripterus in its Roman version. Depending on the frequency of setting the columns and, accordingly, their changing proportions, peripteres of several types were distinguished. The most common were temples with intercolumniums 1.5; 2 and 2.25 column diameters, defined by Vitruvius as pycnostyle, systyl and eustyle. They were distinguished from republican churches by their larger scale, the predominant use of the ceremonial Corinthian or composite order instead of the modest Doric and Ionic, the close placement of columns on the facades and the use of expensive materials - marble, porphyry and granite for wall cladding, columns and details. Due to the traditional nature of the main types in the religious architecture of the empire, the quest of architects was focused mainly on developing the decoration of temples. The poor state of preservation of the temples of this era does not allow us to form a sufficiently complete picture of them.
The main temples of ancient Rome were concentrated in the city center in the Roman Forum (Fig. 33, 34).
| 33. Rome Plan of the Roman Forum during the imperial period: 1 - Basilica Emilia; 2 - curia; 3 - Temple of Concordia; 4 - Temple of Vespasian; 5 - portico; 6 - temple of Saturn (storage of the state treasury); 7 - arch of Septimius Severus; 8 - arch of Tiberius; 9 - rostra: 10 - memorial columns; 11 - Basilica Julia; 12 - vestibule of the imperial palaces; 13 - temple of the Dioscuri; 14 - Arch of Augustus; 15 - Temple of Julia; 16 - temple of Vesta; 17 - atrium of the vestals; 18 - Region; 19 - temple of Antonin and Faustina; 20 - heroon of Romulus; 21 - Basilica of Maxentius; 22 - lobby of the Golden House; 23 - arch of Titus; 24 - Temple of Venus and Roma | |
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Temple of Julius Caesar, the first of the temples built by Augustus, was dedicated to the deified Julius Caesar and erected in 29 BC. at the Roman Forum, limiting it from the east (Fig. 35). It was still a modest style of the Ionic order. The front of the podium stepped back in the center, wrapping around the circular altar that marked the site of Caesar's cremation. The podium projections on the sides of the altar, decorated with rostra of enemy ships, served as stands for speakers. They replaced the tribunal that previously existed here, which was located opposite the rostra in the western part of the forum and was demolished during the construction of the temple.
The style of the early empire is characterized by monumental marble Altar of Peace, built in 13 BC. on the occasion of the victories of Augustus in Spain and Gaul, which completed the pacification of the empire (Fig. 36). Placed near the altar of the god of war Mars, it was a rectangular fence measuring 11.63X10.62 m and 6 m high, in the center of which stood an altar on a stepped pedestal.
Openings in the western and eastern walls of the fence opened up a through passage past the altar. The outer walls of the fence, marked at the corners and at the openings with ornamented pilasters, were covered at the bottom with floral ornaments. The upper parts of the southern and northern walls contained relief images of the procession of Augustus with his retinue to the altar for sacrifice. The theme of movement towards the altar was interrupted by panels on the end sides of the entrances.
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| 37. Rome Temple of Mars Ultor, 2 BC. Modern appearance, cornice detail, entablature profiles: A - upper caisson cymatium; B - second cymatium of the caisson; B - quarter shaft with ionics at the base of the caisson; G - cymatium crowning the architrave; D - beads between the architrave fascia | |
The grandiose scale of the Empire's structures was manifested in Temple of Mars Ultor in the Forum of Augustus (2 BC, Fig. 37). With a facade 35 m wide, the columns reached a height of about 18 m. The slender eight-column pycnostyle of the Italian type was complemented by an apse located above the floor level and closing the main axis of the temple and the entire forum. A special feature of the interior, the wooden ceiling of which was supported by the walls of the cella, were decorative colonnades along the walls. The whiteness of the marble walls and columns, the beautiful forms of classical Roman-Corinthian capitals, the coffers of the portico and the skillful cutting of the details of the entablature added solemnity to the monumental dynastic temple of the Julians.
It was close to the Temple of Mars Ultor in size (30x50 m), harmonious proportions, order and decoration Temple of the Dioscuri in the Roman Forum, reconstructed in 6 BC. (Fig. 38, 39). Like the neighboring Temple of Julius, the Temple of the Dioscuri, which was a peripterus, was also adapted for speeches by orators. The front part of its podium, which had no steps, served as a platform, which was climbed up by side stairs. A wide flight of stairs led to the level of the cella. The podium projections on its sides served as pedestals for the equestrian statues of Castor and Pollux. The exquisite capitals of the temple with intertwining middle curls are unique.
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| 41. Roman Forum. Temple of Concordia, early 1st century. AD Plan, profiles (according to Tabelmann): A - crowning jib; B - cymatium above the external slab; B - remote plate; G - caisson; D - modules; E - ions and beads between modulons and denticles; F - cymatium over the frieze; 3 - upper architrave profile |
At the same time, the ancient Temple of Concordia(Fig. 40, 41), repeating the republican temple of Vejova in its transverse arrangement of the cella. The cella (45X24 m) obscured the substructures of the Tabularium. The Corinthian capitals of the six-column portico are unusual - instead of volutes they have double ram's heads. The remains of the cornice testify to its high artistic quality: the clearly defined tectonics of the elements was combined with the picturesqueness of the luscious floral ornament enlivened by chiaroscuro and the excellent quality of the marble carving. The mature perfection of the decoration of these temples marked the flowering of Augustan classicism.
By the 2nd half of the 1st century. the decor has lost its classical clarity of construction. In the anteroom adjacent to the Temple of Concordia Temple of Vespasian(79), obscuring the staircase from the forum to the Capitol, the cornice modules, densely covered with plant motifs, drown in the ornament and are no longer perceived as load-bearing elements. The character of the marble carving has also changed: the ornamentation is carved deeply, but flatly, and a number of priestly objects on the frieze are treated with dry naturalism (Fig. 42, 43).
From the 2nd half of the 1st century. in some temples there is a departure from traditional forms. The two places of worship in the Forum of Pompeii are unusual in plan (see p. 430. Plan of the Forum of Pompeii). One of them is the Temple of Vespasian, which did not have a portico and was divided into three parts - a vestibule with flat aedicules on the walls, the middle part and behind it - three service rooms. The middle part played the role of a pronaos, at the rear wall of which there was an aedicule on a raised platform, replacing the cella (Fig. 44). The Atrium of the city larariums, located next to the Temple of Vespasian, apparently reproduced on a large scale the structure of private larariums. It was open towards the forum, having an altar in the center, an apse along the main axis and two rectangular exedra near the entrance.
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| 46. Pantheon. Facade |
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| 47. Pantheon. Longitudinal section, plan |
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Occupied a special place in Roman and world architecture Pantheon- the temple of “all gods”, in the capital of the empire. The appearance of the Pantheon and its scale sharply distinguish it from the round peripters that preceded it (Fig. 45).
Most of the Roman rotunda temples of the imperial era were dedicated to the imperial cult. At the end of the 1st century. BC. The first Pantheon was built by the architect Valerius of Ostia, commissioned by Agrippa. Its surviving remains are insignificant. It probably had a round shape and was dedicated to all the gods, but primarily to Mars and Venus - the patrons of the imperial Julian family. Apparently, the desire to preserve the continuity of traditions was one of the main reasons that forced the architect of the Pantheon (he was, in all likelihood, Apollodorus of Damascus, although it is believed that the authorship belonged to Emperor Hadrian) to give it a round shape. The Pantheon was built in 118-128; later restorations by Antoninus Pius, Septimius Severus and Caracalla changed its appearance little. It was erected on the Campus Martius, approximately the same distance from the city center as the Colosseum, and served as a kind of counterweight to it.
The building consists of three parts: a domed rotunda, a rectangular portico adjacent to it from the north, and a transition element between them, which has the height of the rotunda and the width of the portico (Fig. 46, 47). A staircase of five steps, equal in width, led to the portico. As excavations have shown, in front of the Pantheon there was a rectangular elongated paved courtyard, surrounded by porticoes with propylaea on the axis of the temple portico and a triumphal arch in the center of the courtyard (Fig. 48). The giant rotunda has an internal diameter of 43.5 m and a spherical dome with a diameter of 43.2 m. The dome surpasses in size not only all similar structures of antiquity, but also those of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and modern times until the 19th century. The Pantheon is the most monumental example of a domed building from the Roman era.
The development of dome construction in Roman architecture was associated with the domed halls of the nymphaeums and baths. The rotunda of the Baths of Mercury in Baiae (1st century AD), with a dome diameter exceeding 20 m, was in this regard a prototype of the Pantheon. But the domed halls of the baths have always been part of the building complex, and in the Pantheon, for the first time, a cylindrical domed volume of enormous size acquired independent significance.
The diameter of the rotunda is equal to its height, which is half the height of the building, a ratio recommended by Vitruvius (Fig. 48).
The rotunda rests on a ring foundation 7.3 m wide and 4.5 m deep. The expansion of the dome determined the significant thickness of the concrete wall with brick lining of 6.3 m (1/7 of the diameter of the rotunda), which is divided by large niches into eight giant pylons (Fig. 49). The eight main niches are 8.9 m wide and 4.5 m deep with a thickness of their rear walls of 1.8 m. The niches lighten the wall by 1/3 of its volume. In addition, eight pylons are divided by small voids (in the form of reverse filled niches) into 16 radial buttress supports. This significantly lightened the volume of the wall and turned it into a rigid frame of 16 supports, alternating with thin sections of the wall.
Large niches are covered with powerful brick arches of double curvature, which connect the pylons to each other and create a continuous ring support for the dome. Smaller arches not only connect the larger ones, complementing the dome’s support system, but also relieve the entablature of the lower tier order from the pressure of the dome’s mass. The system of arched structures also includes arches in the lower zone of the dome itself, the task of which is to transfer the pressure of the dome only to the pylons. Thanks to this, there is almost no inert mass in the wall of the Pantheon. The wall is a multi-tiered arcade, the skillful construction of which ensured the excellent preservation of the monument under seismic conditions for millennia.
The dome is cast from horizontal layers of concrete, reinforced with brick arches in the lower zone. A thorough study of the structure of the dome refuted the misconception originating from Piranesi and repeated by Viollet le Duc, Choisy and others about the presence in the dome of the Pantheon of a frame of brick arches above the second row of caissons from the bottom *. The composition of concrete varies depending on the height of the dome. In the lower parts of the dome, the concrete filler was solid travertine chips, in the upper parts - chips of tuff and light pumice. An important role is played by the caissons of the dome, cast simultaneously with it. Covering its surface in five rows to a height of 60° from the base, they leave smooth the space around the round window - the opion, the diameter of which is 8.92 m. According to the reduction in circumference, the upper caissons are half the size of the lower ones. The caissons dissect the surface of the dome and lighten it by approximately 1/6 of its weight, and their prospective reduction visually increases the height of the dome. In general, the design of the Pantheon can be characterized as a dome on an arcade.
* W. Macdonald. The architecture of the Roman Empire, New Haven, 1965, p. 105
The external divisions of the rotunda are very simple: the lower horizontal protrusion reflects the boundary between the first and second tiers of the wall, and the second marks the beginning of the dome, i.e. the boundary between the load-bearing and non-supporting parts of the structure. The wall in the lower part was probably faced with marble, and in the upper part it was plastered. The third projection corresponds to the transition from the annular wall around the base of the dome to the seven stepped ledges loading the lower part of the vault (Fig. 50). The surface of the dome was covered with gilded tiles.
Inside, the building is divided by four rectangular and three semicircular niches. Opposite the middle semicircular niche there is a cut of the entrance arch that repeats its outline. The lower tier of the wall is 13 m high and is decorated with columns and pilasters of the Corinthian order (Fig. 51). The second tier is an attic 8.7 m high, built before the 18th century. dissected by pilasters made of colored marble.
The interior of the Pantheon is dominated by the hemisphere of its grandiose dome. The impression of unity of the spatial whole is enhanced by the balance between its vertical and horizontal dimensions. A single undivided space is covered by a powerful sphere, perceived as a symbolic image of the celestial sphere. Ancient authors directly write about this understanding of the covering of the Pantheon. This is what determined the special role of the dome in the design of the Pantheon, different from the role that the dome played in buildings for utilitarian purposes.
An important role belongs to the order system introduced into the first tier of the temple. The columns supporting the entablature cover huge niches and thereby contribute to the creation of a single internal space of the Pantheon. Without them, it would have been fragmented, the scale would have changed and the grandeur of the internal space would not have been revealed. The attic belt, loosened only above the niche opposite the entrance, forms an organic transition from the wall to the sphere. The attic tier is perceived as part of the dome, further emphasizing its role in the interior of the Pantheon.
The predominance of the dome does not mean that its mass pressed on the person inside the temple. The architect sought to create the impression of lightness of the ceiling structure. In addition to the caissons, order divisions of the wall served this purpose. Obviously not designed to support the actual mass of the dome, they nevertheless gave the viewer the impression of the lightness of the sphere rising above them. This was especially true for the small pilasters of the upper tier, which looked like the support of a dome.
A special role was given to the only light hole located at the highest point of the Pantheon dome. The centricity of the room, its enormous size, the brilliance of the column of light in the center and the twilight on the “periphery” of the rotunda not only created the impression of peace and concentration, but also forced the worshiper in the temple to perceive the sky and sunlight with a special feeling. The column of light pouring from the sky through the opion, around which the interior space of the Pantheon unfolds, is the real core of the composition (Fig. 52, 53). To understand how the Romans should have perceived such a solution to the internal space of the temple, one must remember that for him the supreme deity - Jupiter - was not so much an anthropomorphic creature as the vault of heaven itself.
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| 51. Order of the Pantheon. Corinthian order: a - entrance portico; b - lower tier of the interior; c - upper tier of the interior; d - pilasters of the entrance portico | |
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The interior space of the Pantheon is huge and, as in any centric building, from any point of view (except the central one) it seems larger than it actually is: There are no corners, no straight horizontal lines, only a huge hemisphere and a uniform rhythm of columns, piers and niches. This does not look like the solution to the internal space of the temple that was usual for the Romans. The Pantheon presented a fundamentally new solution for the sacred building, which radically broke with the traditions of the ancient perception of the temple. An ordinary Greek and Roman temple is the house of a deity, access to which for an ordinary person is, if not prohibited, then difficult. Only the priest could enter there freely. Everyone else was outside at the time of the religious ceremony. The architect of the Pantheon proposed a completely different solution. The person praying was inside, he was surrounded on all sides by a space that was considered sacred. Here a different, non-antique understanding of the internal space of the temple already appears. The increasing role of religion towards the end of the ancient period, its new forms forced us to rethink the architectural forms of the temple. The inward movement of the believer can be seen in many temples of mystery cults. The principle here is the same, the only difference is the size and shape of the space. Reflecting new trends in the development of religious ideology, the Pantheon became one of the prototypes of Christian centric churches of the Byzantine era, the most striking example of which is the Temple of Sophia in Constantinople.
The entrance to the Pantheon is a portico 14 m deep (Fig. 54). It is covered with a gable roof on bronze rafters, it is supported by 16 columns with a diameter of 1.5 m and a height of 14 m. There are eight columns along the facade, the rest, located in a row of four each, divide the space of the portico into three parts. This division of the portico corresponds to the division of the façade of a rectangular projection, which is a transitional element from the portico to the rotunda.
The entrance to the Pantheon is flanked by two large semicircular niches, in one of which stood a statue of Augustus, and in the other - Agrippa. In general, this is extremely reminiscent of the cella divisions of an ordinary Roman temple, but the central element here is turned into a passage. Naturally, the visitor formed associations connecting the architectural elements of the Pantheon with familiar and familiar images. They forced him to perceive the very inner space of the Pantheon in a new way, to see in it the enormously expanded and newly resolved cella of the traditional temple.
The introduction of the portico was intended to give an axial orientation to the centric building of the Pantheon. The search of Roman architects to solve this problem is illustrated by the Republican Temple B on Largo Argentina. The further development of these searches was reflected in the architecture of the Pantheon. Here the transitional element appeared, which made it possible to move the portico forward.
Finally, the strongest frontal axial orientation was given to the temple by a colonnaded rectangular courtyard 110 m long, preceded by a relatively high and wide portico. All these architectural elements, which narrowed the field of view when approaching the Pantheon, masked the rotunda and set the visitor to a familiar perception. The stronger was the impact of architecture and sunlight: from the bright sun of the colonnaded courtyard, the visitor moved to the shade of the deep portico and the semi-darkness of the passage behind it, and then again suddenly to the sun and spaciousness of the interior space of the Pantheon.
In the Pantheon, the engineering and architectural thought of ancient Rome, prepared by the previous searches and discoveries of Roman architects (the development of the rotunda, large-diameter domes, the application of traditional axial composition to a centric building), found its highest expression. The Pantheon was the model that was followed by many rotundas built later. Already 35 years later, a smaller temple of this type (Zeus Asklepios) was built in Pergamon. The influence of the Pantheon is most pronounced in Ostian rotunda(dome diameter 18.35 m) 3rd century, dedicated to the imperial cult (Fig. 55).
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57. Rome Temple of Venus and Roma. Plan, side facade, longitudinal section |
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The outbreak of eclecticism under Hadrian was especially pronounced in architecture, which combined features of Greek and Oriental architecture with the Roman constructive basis. In this regard, it was built according to the design of the emperor himself. Temple of Venus and Roma(121 -140) at the Roman Forum, criticized by Apollodorus for the disproportion of some of its parts (Fig. 56-58). Externally, it is a peripterus of the Greek type with an elongated volume of the cella. But the core of the structure is made up of two identical, typically Roman temples, touching apses, in one of which there was a statue of a seated Venus, in the other - of Roma. The stone walls of the temple were supported by wooden rafters that spanned more than 20-meter spans of cellae. Corinthian periptera columns (10x20) - made of white Luni marble. This most grandiose of the empire's temples (107x55 m) was placed on a high platform (120x145 m), along the long sides of which there were colonnades of gray granite with white marble capitals. Colonnades in the center formed propylaea. Staircases were adjacent to the ends of the podium: the wide front one was facing the Sacred Road, and two narrow side ones were facing the Colosseum. The remains of the temple were reconstructed by Maxentius, which enhanced its Roman features, when the stone walls were replaced with concrete with marble cladding, and the wooden covering with coffered vaults. The interior, with its floor inlaid with colored marble, with sculptures in niches framed by aedicules on brackets, with huge statues of Venus and Roma in the apses framed by porphyry columns, was striking in its grandeur and splendor. The temple to the goddesses - the patroness of Rome and imperial power, compared with the temples of the ancient Roman Forum - was striking in size and scope and clearly demonstrated the power achieved by the empire.
The idea of Rome's military dominance over the contemporary world was the basis of the Adrianeum - Temple of Hadrian in Rome, completed around 149 (Fig. 59). The temple, using the peripter type, but in its Roman version and with a vaulted roof, was decorated inside with relief figures representing the provinces subject to Rome. The arrangement of the reliefs uses an oriental technique: they are placed on pedestals of semi-columns dividing the walls, and the spaces between the podiums are filled with military fittings.
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The originality of the farewell Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Roman Forum(141 AD) was a relief frieze in which elegantly outlined images of griffins, priestly vessels and garlands were repeated (Fig. 60).
By the 3rd century. the construction of new temples in Rome almost stopped. At the beginning of the 3rd century. was rebuilt Temple of Vesta and the atrium of the Vestals in the Roman Forum (Fig. 61). The round peripter with Corinthian columns on separate pedestals acquired the appearance characteristic of buildings of the Severian time with unclear contours of frieze reliefs and shallow cutting of ornamentation. The expanded atrium included, in addition to the living rooms of the Vestals, a number of utility rooms around a courtyard decorated with fountains and statues.
Along with temples to Roman gods and emperors in the capital and a number of other cities of Italy already in the 1st century. BC. there were temples to eastern gods.
The image of the religious ceremony of Isis is preserved in a fresco at Herculaneum (Fig. 62).
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| 64. Pompeii. Temple of Isis, 1st century. AD Modern view, plan | |
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In Rome in 43 BC. was built on the Champ de Mars sanctuary of the Egyptian gods Isis and Serapis, later rebuilt by Domitian. It was a semicircular fence surrounded by a portico, with an apse in the center and exedra on the sides, apparently preceded by a rectangular courtyard (Fig. 63). In Pompeii there was a temple of Isis - a type of prostyle on a high podium with two exedra flanking the cella, a second - side - entrance to it and a transverse division of the interior (Fig. 64). The temple stood in the center of the peristyle fence, to the rear wall of which two halls adjoined - for the dedication ceremony and for common meals of believers - with paintings on Egyptian religious subjects. In front of the temple, to the left of the stairs, there was an altar and a reservoir with sacred water from the Nile, protected by a temple of oriental forms with an entablature in the center, curved in the shape of an arch.
In the 1st century BC. in Rome, near Porta Maggiore, followers of one of the mystical cults built a three-nave underground basilica with an apse and a vestibule (Fig. 65). The incorrect placement of the pillars is caused by the unusual way the basilica was built. Deep trenches and wells filled with concrete were dug along the contours of the walls and pillars. The earth was also used as a casting mold for the construction of arches between pillars and barrel vaults. The interior of the basilica, then freed from the ground, illuminated by light from the vestibule, was covered with fine stucco decoration and paintings.
A special type of religious buildings were mithraeums, which spread in the last centuries of the empire. Many mithraeums have survived in Rome, Ostia, Capua and other cities of Italy and the provinces. Mithraeums were underground sanctuaries of an elongated rectangular shape with a niche in the depths, imitating a grotto and containing an image of Mithras killing a bull, with an altar in front of it and an elevation along the walls with boxes for worshipers (mithraeum in Serdica, modern Sofia, Fig. 66). Sometimes, as in the mithraeum of the Baths of Caracalla, there was a pool in the center of the floor into which the blood of sacrificial animals flowed. The rituals took place in darkness and by torchlight and ended with a meal. The main center of the Mithraists in Rome was the mithraeum of the imperial villa (2nd century), remarkable for its reliefs and paintings. It was excavated under the church of Santa Prisca on the Aventine.
Followers of Judaism built synagogues - basilica-type buildings, usually three-aisled, with benches along the walls and a facade oriented towards Jerusalem. One of them was preserved in Ostia (1st century AD, rebuilt in the 4th century).
In the 2nd half of the 3rd century. in Roman religion the conditions were ripe for the replacement of polytheism with monotheism. The first attempt in this regard was made by the Emperor Aurelian, who tried to introduce a unified cult of the Sun in the empire. At this time, two temples of the Sun were built in the capital, both round peripters: one in the Circus Maximus, the other near the Via Flaminia, which came down to Palladio’s sketch (Fig. 67). The latter was placed in the center of a large rectangular courtyard, surrounded by a stone fence with exedra. The decorative details of the ensemble were apparently made by Syrian craftsmen.
In the last century of the empire, the construction of new churches almost stopped in Italy. This was caused both by the decline of official religion and by the general catastrophic situation of the state.
Religious architecture in the provinces, even deeply Romanized ones, was more closely connected with local traditions than other types of buildings. This is explained by the fact that subordination to Rome had little impact on this area of life, for Roman polytheism fully allowed for the existence of each nation with its own gods. Of course, the introduction of the Romans and the founding of Roman cities was accompanied by the construction of Capitols, and the worship of the inhabitants of the conquered areas to Roman deities expressed their loyalty to Rome. But often the Romans themselves, who found themselves in one or another conquered region, also began to worship local deities in local temples. Ancient polytheism often led to the identification of local deities with Roman ones, and the syncretism that arose in this way sometimes gave rise to a mixture of Roman and local features in the architecture of temples.
Thanks to all these circumstances, the overall picture of the development of religious architecture in the provinces was quite varied. A typical example would be Gaul. The very strong Romanization of the province led to the construction of a large number of Roman temples (mostly pseudoperipteri), the most striking example of which was the Maison Carré in Nemause - a temple built in 20-19. BC. and later dedicated to Gaius and Julius Caesars (Fig. 68). Another example of temples of this type is the Temple of Augustus and Livia (originally the Temple of Augustus and Roma) in Vienne, also dating from Augustan times. In addition to them, in Gaul there were many temples whose forms had nothing in common with the Greco-Roman types. They found distribution throughout the empire, since they worshiped eastern deities, which received recognition both in Rome and in all the provinces. Finally, there were local forms of temples. These primarily include grandiose tower-shaped sanctuaries. A rotunda with an internal diameter of 21 m and a preserved height of 27 m, surrounded by a high portico and placed inside a peribole, is the structure of a common temple of this type (Vesunna, modern Périgueux, 2nd century AD). The dominant type was the round tower; Temples with a square plan (the so-called Temple of Janus in Augustodunum) are also less common. Similar temples are known in Britain.
Another local type of temple was the so-called fana. This small temple was usually built in the forest and had a square cella with an entrance on the eastern side.
These temples are found in Gaul, Germany and Britain. Finally, there were temples in which local and Roman features were mixed.
The situation was similar in other provinces. Thus, in northern Africa there were many typically Roman temples. The temple in Tevesta (modern Tebesse, beginning of the 3rd century AD, Fig. 69) is extremely close to the temple of Nemauz, but differs from it in the unique decorative treatment of the attic. The architecture of some temples clearly showed not Roman, but eastern - Syro-Phoenician features. Such is the temple of Saturn (Baal) in Dugga (Fig. 70), which consisted of a luxurious vestibule, a peristyle courtyard and three rooms located in a row on its northern side. The cult took place in the courtyard around an image of the deity, possibly in the form of a betil (conical stone). A peculiar combination of local and Roman features is demonstrated by the temple of Juno Caelestis (Heavenly) in the same city (Fig. 70). The center of the sanctuary is a typical Roman peripter of the Corinthian order in the middle of a semicircular peribole.
The cult architecture of Roman Syria is unique; Usually, anthal, prostyle or peripterial temples were built here, placed in the depths of the courtyard on a high podium with a staircase from the main facade alone. But inside, the place of the usual apse was occupied by an aditon in the form of a high podium. Among the Syrian temples, the grandiose complexes in Baalbek (Heliopolis) and Palmyra (I-III centuries) stood out.
A grandiose ensemble of three temples - Big, Small and Round- occupied a significant territory in the western part Baalbek, near the intersection of two main highways (Fig. 71-73). The main thing was Great Temple(53.3X94.4 m, see Fig. 71), which, together with the related structures, was erected according to the old Syrian tradition on an artificial platform (its height is 9 m). The height of the temple (about 40 m), the spatial scope of the ensemble and its orientation towards the city center determined its dominance in the city landscape.
A monumental staircase led to the wide façade of the propylaeum. The towers flanking the deep 12-column portico, the curving of the entablature in the shape of an arch over the expanded middle span of the colonnade, the emphasized frontality of the propylae - all this was consistent with the traditions of Syrian architecture. At the same time, the arrangement along one axis of all parts of the complex - the propylaeum, the hexagonal courtyard, the rectangular peristyle and the Great Temple itself - corresponded to the principle of axial symmetry accepted in Roman architecture. The centric space of the hexagonal courtyard served as a kind of transition from the frontally deployed space of the propylae to the space of the rectangular peristyle. The altar located along the axis of the peristyle and the elongated pools flanking it directed towards the Great Temple. However, the placement of the altar in the center of the temple complex, in keeping with the local tradition, and its grandiose dimensions conflicted with the axial composition of this ensemble. The large temple is badly damaged: out of 54 columns of its external porticoes, six have survived. However, the similarity of the layout of the Big and Small Temples allows us to reconstruct the interior of the Big Temple.
Its peculiarity is the likening of the interior of the temple to a peristyle courtyard, which gives the impression of a kind of doubling of space. In the composition of the entire complex, the Great Temple was the final element, but at the same time its internal space seemed to repeat the ensemble as a whole in reduced dimensions. The monumental staircase of the temple was likened to the staircase of the propylaea, the portico of the facade - to the propylaea itself, the pronaos - to the space of a hexagonal courtyard, the naos resembled a peristyle, and in its depths on a high podium there was an adyton, designed as a miniature temple.
The unity of the various parts of the ensemble was emphasized by the same decorative technique - the division into two tiers of niches and aedicules filled with sculpture of almost all internal surfaces: the walls of the propylae, the walls of numerous exedra opening onto the porticos of the courtyards, and the walls of the temple. The order is interpreted in a generally Roman manner, although with excessively high columns. It was combined with half-figures of bulls and lions in the relief decoration of the entablature. characteristic of oriental art.
Small Temple(34X68.5 m, apparently dedicated to Bacchus) repeated the same compositional and decorative motifs on a smaller scale (Fig. 76, 77). Its interesting feature was the introduction into the interior of a sculptural frieze depicting scenes of the Dionysian cult. The frieze, placed on the podium of the aditon, seemed to lead to the statue of Bacchus, which stood in a niche in the depths of the aditon.
To the south of the Big and Small Temples there was the so-called Round Temple(its diameter is 9 m). A four-column portico facing the center of the ensemble obscured the cella and gave the centric temple the frontal axial orientation favored by Roman architects. The rare originality of the appearance of the temple was revealed when walking around it. The deep bracing of the podium and entablature created an alternation of strongly protruding and sinking parts of the portico. The arched parts of the porticoes brought the niches of the cella closer to the viewer, highlighting them with an order frame and focusing attention on the statues placed in them. Thus, the architectural forms of the temple imparted an intermittent rhythm to the movement of the viewer who perceived them, different from the smooth movement around an ordinary rotunda.
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| 78. Palmyra (Syria). Temple of Bel, I-III centuries. Reconstruction of the temple, plan, general plan, fragment of the courtyard colonnade | 79. Temple of Bel. Modern look |
The architecture is also marked by a combination of Roman and local features. Temple of Bel in Palmyra(I-III centuries AD, Fig. 78, 79). Like the ensemble of the Great Temple in Baalbek, the sacred site of the Temple of Bel was located on an artificial platform (its size is 210 X 205 m) and was surrounded by a wall, broken on the outside with pilasters and niches. In the II century. Porticoes were built along the inner perimeter of the wall. The higher portico along the western wall, unlike the others, had only one row of columns. In front of the temple, as in Baalbek, there was an altar for sacrifice and a pool for ablution. Access to the sacred site was opened by the propylaea (the width of its façade is 35 m) with a monumental staircase and a three-bay entrance. They were located on the western side of the site, along the axis of the entrance to the temple.
The frontality of the composition, characteristic of Syrian architecture, was clearly manifested in the architecture of the Temple of Bel.
The Temple of Bel (55.3X30.3m) is of the pseudodipter type, the capitals of the Corinthian columns were decorated with bronze acanthus leaves. It had an entrance not on the short side, but on the long side, slightly offset to the south from the transverse axis of the temple and decorated with a portal covered with flat floral patterns. There were two aditons in the temple - at the northern and southern walls of the cella. In addition to the statue of Bel, in the niche of the southern wall in the cell of the temple there were also statues of the gods of the sun and moon (Yargibol and Aglibol), who together with Bel constituted the triad of the main deities of Syria. The images in the Roman-type temple of the seven planets, accompanied by the signs of the zodiac on the ceiling of the northern niche, indicate the strength of local religious traditions with their cosmic ideas. Also unusual for a Roman temple is the presence of stairs in the corners of the cella, which led to rooms above the cult niches. Apparently, the stairs also had access to the flat roof, where square turrets rose above the Syrian crenellated attic, possibly serving for astronomical observations. Local motifs play a significant role in the details of the ornament and especially in the reliefs of the temple.
In terms of the unusual architectural forms, the original combination of Roman and Eastern features and monumentality, the ensembles of temples in Baalbek and Palmyra represented an outstanding phenomenon in the architecture of the Roman Empire.
In the south of Syria, in the areas of settlement of the Nabatean tribes, temples were common, which, in their structure, were based on the Iranian fire temples (for example, Khirbet Tannur, Syria), which were built here since Hellenistic times. The cella, square in plan, was divided internally by four columns, forming a square in plan, in the center of which the altar was placed. Northern Mesopotamia is characterized by the revival of the most ancient local forms of sanctuary. Thus, the temples of Dura-Europos repeat the layout of the Babylonian temple with its extensive courtyard, around which a group of rooms is arranged. A similar process is happening in Egypt.
The general direction of the evolution of religious architecture of the empire was the gradual elimination of traditional Italian types of temples. The strengthening of eastern cults in Italy already in the 2nd century. led to an increased importance of the temple interior and to the adoption of a number of oriental decorative forms and compositional techniques. Towards the end of the empire, the construction of Roman temples ceased, and in the provinces, local types of sanctuaries began to predominate over temples with mixed Roman and local features. From the 3rd century. At first, latently, and then clearly, there is a search for a type of temple for the growing new religion - Christianity.
Rome is truly monstrously old. Ancient catacombs, ancient temples, grottoes, networks of narrow streets, inconspicuous buildings of the richest churches - all this creates an indescribable atmosphere. And the religious world of Rome is a separate universe with its own laws and traditions. The churches of Rome are so diverse and colorful that you inevitably begin to doubt which one you need to see first.
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San Giovanni in Lateranno
The Lateran Basilica ranks at the highest level among all religious buildings in Rome, surpassing in status such ancient and undeniably revered monuments as St. Peter's Basilica. The archbasilica houses the throne of the pontiff. Once upon a time, it was on this site that the first Christian church of Rome was located. Later, by the ninth century, the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist appeared on the Lateran Hill, which for some time retained the status of the only papal temple.
The real dawn came for the Lateran Basilica when Borromini took on its reconstruction, giving the archibasilica bright Baroque features. At the same time, huge bronze doors were transported from the Roman Forum itself to be installed at the main portal. The Basilica of San Giovanni amazes with the richness of its fresco paintings and mosaics, made in the classical Byzantine style. Carved ceilings, stucco columns, sculptures of the apostles, ancient religious artifacts made of silver and precious stones - the basilica justifies the inscription above the main entrance: “the mother of all churches in Rome and the world.”
Church of Santa Maria Maggiore
The Basilica of St. Mary is impossible not to notice, since it is the largest church in the Catholic capital, as its name subtly reminds us: “maggiore” - large. And right in front of the entrance there is a fifteen-meter statue of the Virgin Mary, cast in bronze. It's hard to accidentally pass by. In addition, despite the fact that the founding date of the church sends us back to the fourth century AD, this church is perhaps the only one in Rome that has almost completely preserved its authentic appearance. Its foundation is associated with a legend about the Mother of God, who ordered the construction of a temple on the spot where snow would fall.
Snow fell, and the church began to be called the Church of the “Mother of God in the Snows,” but this action took place in August. A thirteenth-century mosaic of amazing skill is dedicated to this subject. The richly painted ceilings, medieval mosaics and magnificent examples of mosaic art, preserved from the time of the construction of the church, tell the story of the life of Christ and convey Old Testament stories. The church consists of three chapels, the most famous of which is the Sistine, so both fans of cultural shrines and those who want to touch holy relics are guaranteed to be satisfied with a visit here.
San Pietro in Vincoli
The basilica is also known as St. Peter's Basilica in chains, that is, in chains. It is noteworthy that this artifact, which is an important religious shrine, is kept in the modern basilica. The “honest chains” ended up here thanks to Eudoxia, the Byzantine queen, who at one time presented them as a gift to the pontiff. She founded the temple in Rome, which today we call San Pietro in Vincoli.
The basilica is one of the seven largest buildings of this type in Rome and has been one of the centers of pilgrimage for many centuries. Its facade looks completely unremarkable, however, this is not surprising. External modesty distinguishes most buildings of the fourth century. But most tourists come here not for the sake of sacred relics, but to see with their own eyes the stunning tomb of Julius II by Michelangelo with a sculptural composition of forty figures and the undoubtedly brilliant sculpture “Moses” by the same master.
Santa Maria sopra Minerva
This building, made of light stone, is one of the main temples of the Dominican order. It was transferred to the order in the eighth century. Then, on the site of the modern basilica, there was a rotunda, named after Minerva after the name of the ancient temple of the same name, which was located nearby. It was here that at one time Galileo and Count Cagliostro “voluntarily” renounced their views. It is quite difficult not to recognize Santa Maria sopra Minerva.
This is perhaps the only temple in Rome, made in the Gothic style with pointed arches and sky-blue vaults, skillfully painted with stars. Unfortunately, medieval Gothic has not reached us in its pure form - the appearance of the basilica still contains baroque elements traditional for Florentine masters and Rome. The main value of the temple is still the statue of Christ with a cross, which is attributed to the works of Michelangelo. It is designed in the spirit of Antiquity and demonstrates the moment of the resurrection of Christ.
Santa Maria del Popolo
A fairly large building, decorated in gray and blue tones, makes few people gaze at it, but behind such an unremarkable shell hide real treasures. According to legend, there was once a tomb of Nero on the site of the basilica, over which a poplar gradually grew, quickly becoming a favorite of crows. This place was already considered cursed, and the appearance of a bony tree and black birds made the picture even less attractive. Everything changed at the end of the eleventh century, when the Pope had a dream. The Virgin Mary ordered to destroy the poplar and create a temple in its place.
First the chapel appeared, and then the basilica itself. You can talk about the interior of this place for hours - many geniuses of their era left their masterpieces here. Thus, at different times, Giovanni Bernini, who gave the building a baroque appearance, worked on the design of the chapels, Raphael Santi, who decorated the dome with a large-scale mosaic both in terms of scope and design, Caravaggio, the Italian master who gave this place as many as two his paintings, and Pinturicchio, although tourists will not be able to see the latter’s works. The chapel, which he designed, was badly damaged and was reconstructed by Bernini.
Church of San Clemente
To the east of the Colosseum there is a small church, but under the low arches lies a real treasure trove of Christian shrines, dating back to the time of Emperor Nero. Oddly enough, in this basilica you can even venerate Orthodox saints, in particular the relics of Cyril, who created the Slavic alphabet. The Tomb of St. Clement, one of the most important parts of the basilica, is located on the lower level. Local mosaics are of interest. In modern terms, they are more reminiscent of comics, and many of the inscriptions are made in a far from high style.
This allows linguists to talk about the existence of an early Italian language. Under the relatively new premises of the Middle Ages, the ruins of an early Christian temple were discovered in the twentieth century. Of particular interest is the Temple of Mithra, which dates back to the third century. Now what remains of it is a grotto, in which there are benches and a stone altar under a vaulted ceiling. But the archaeologists did not stop there - under the grotto were the remains of civil premises destroyed during the time of Nero.
Santa Maria in Cosmedin
The church has a laconic, strict design and is located on the left bank of the Tiber. Until the fourth century, on the site of the church there was a Forum Boar, and even earlier - an ancient temple built in honor of Hercules. The first building served civil needs - it acted as a point for distributing food to the poor, but gradually all charitable funds were concentrated in the hands of the Papal See, and by the seventh century the complex itself became the property of the Greek community, which fled to Rome when Byzantium fell.
Even in the sovereign name of the church one can feel an echo of those times: “kosmidion” - from the Greek “beautiful”. This characteristic was not accidental - the interior decoration of the temple is truly amazing. Floors by Cosmati, an authentic Gothic altar made of red granite, an Easter candelabra preserved from the thirteenth century, fragments of the mosaic of the Baptism of the Lord (the rest of the parts are kept in St. Peter's Basilica and in the Uffizi Gallery in sunny Florence) - all this can be seen in the chapels.
The bell tower, one of the tallest in Rome, is made in an extremely delicate manner and is decorated with multi-colored majolica. A somewhat unusual symbol of the church is the “Mouth of Truth” - a marble slab reaching almost two meters in diameter. The exact application of this echo of Antiquity is still not entirely clear, but the Triton mask that adorns it definitely arouses the interest of tourists.
Santa Maria in Trastevere
Oddly enough, but this basilica - due to a number of historical circumstances - has become one of the most popular basilicas among the Orthodox population. There were even two Orthodox icons installed at her altar, but it is worth understanding that the history of the creation of the church itself is in no way connected with Orthodoxy. It is important to understand that Santa Maria in Trastevere is considered perhaps the first Christian basilica officially permitted in Rome. The modern building was mostly erected in the twelfth century.
The main building material was travertine blocks, which were taken from ancient baths. At that time, such practice was common. The façade is decorated with an image of the Virgin Mary holding Jesus in her arms. The fresco dates back to the thirteenth century. The interior space - with high ceilings, stucco and gilding - is “fringed” with mosaics in the Cosmatesque style.
Church of Santa Sabina
The basilica is located on the Aventine Hill and is part of the monastery complex of the Dominican Order. It was erected on the remains of Matron Sabina, revered in Rome. By the tenth century, local authorities appreciated all the advantages of the basilica's location and turned it into a fortification. However, this state of affairs did not last long - soon the church building began to pass from the hands of one noble Roman family to another.
The series of reconstructions was interrupted only in the middle of the twentieth century, when the Dominican Order wished to return the basilica to its authentic appearance. Thus, she was able to preserve all the characteristic features of the ancient Roman structure. If you find yourself in the Church of Santa Sabina, be sure to go to the courtyard where the ancient orange tree grows. According to legend, this tree was the first orange tree grown in Italy.
San Paolo fuori le Mura
This basilica is one of the four so-called patriarchal basilicas of Rome. It is located outside the city walls on the site where, according to legend, the Apostle Paul was buried. However, recently the sarcophagus of the mentioned apostle was actually found. The first version of the basilica seemed to Theodosius I not majestic enough for a place so significant for the entire religious world.
Large-scale construction began, which marked the beginning of the construction of a modern church. The building that can be seen today has a classic appearance. The facade is decorated quite strictly and is decorated with the figure of Christ, on both hands of whom stand the apostles: Peter and Paul. The design contains echoes of the Byzantine style, as well as Gothic and Baroque architecture. The basilica is especially proud of its ancient organ, the last reconstruction of which took place in the twentieth century.
Sant'Andrea al Quirinale
This church is another outstanding project by Bernini, commissioned by the Jesuits on the Quirinal Hill. The Order needed premises for the novitiate, that is, the period of novitiate, the institution of which was introduced in the sixteenth century. Once on the site of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale there was an old church, whose building was too dilapidated. There was only one foundation left - a powerful foundation on which a new Baroque basilica was built for ten years.
Bernini himself considered it one of his best creations and could sit inside for hours, enjoying the knowledge that this work of architectural thought belongs to his authorship. The interior space of the church is very contrasting - the dark side panels favorably set off the well-lit central part of the room. The dominant feature of the interior is the painting “The Martyrdom of St. Andrew” by Guillaume Courtois.
Church of Saint Praxeda
This ninth-century architectural monument does not stand out too much from the general background of Roman streets. The almost bare facade strongly contrasts with the splendor and luxury of interior decoration. It is here that the titular church is located, which is mostly known for the beauty of its ancient frescoes and the presence of a large number of remains of saints and great martyrs. It is named after Saint Praxeda and is located on the site of the former baptistery dedicated to the same saint.
The life of this woman has come down to us in retellings and legends, but she became famous mainly due to the fact that she buried martyrs walled up in the Roman catacombs according to the canons of the Christian rite. Today the crypt contains over two thousand remains of saints. Their names are engraved on marble slabs.
San Lorenzo Fuori Mura
This church, unusual from an architectural and historical point of view, is located outside the city walls, since previously Christian churches were erected on the burial sites of martyrs who, as required by the canons, gave their lives for the faith. And they were buried according to old Roman customs outside the city walls. The design of the church is more than original: in fact, it is a series of independent churches that were simply connected.
Until the Second World War, its appearance clearly showed the Church of Pope Pegalia and the Church of Pope Honorius, but one enemy shell destroyed this amazing symbiosis. Most of the valuable frescoes perished; only marble frescoes and a few early Christian sarcophagi survived. Also, the old part of the church, dating back to the sixth century, was virtually undamaged. Other premises had to be reconstructed.
Church of Santa Constanza
The first versions of the temple date back to the third century AD. Its construction is associated with the name of Constantine the Great, who decided to build a mausoleum for his daughters. Construction began immediately, and very soon a neat, light building with ornaments, mosaics with images of Jesus Christ and a fine painting of the dome arose along the Nomentarskaya road. True, gradually the mausoleum began to turn into a basilica: first a baptismal font appeared, and then other attributes of the church. This is how we see it today.
It is generally accepted that the primitive buildings of Rome came from the Etruscan people, perhaps even erected by them. This was logically a continuation of the line of Greek architecture. The buildings of the Roman Empire retained the basis of Etruscan architecture - the circular arch. A circular arch is a rounded stone covering that connected the abutments to each other. This helped to arrange the stones in a radius circle for even pressure on them. By using new building techniques, the Romans were able to inject creativity into new buildings. New theoretical knowledge helped to build large temples and the ability to erect multi-story houses and buildings. In terms of the introduction of cross vaults and box vaults, the Romans succeeded over the Greeks and made more sophisticated buildings.
In order for the arches to stand securely, columns, which were previously popular, were no longer used. Roman architects began to build huge walls and pilasters, and columns became simply decorative decorations. This was used almost everywhere, but there were also buildings in which the use of columns was more appropriate. The styles of the columns remained virtually unchanged; the Romans settled on the standard Greek version.
In general, Roman architecture was directly dependent on the Greek trends in architecture. However, the Romans tried more to emphasize their strength and independence to intimidate and suppress foreign peoples. They spared no expense in decorating their buildings; each structure was magnificent and richly decorated. At the same time, from the architect’s point of view, they tried to make each structure exemplary. Mostly buildings were built for practical needs, but temples also occupied an important place among the buildings.
History of the architecture of Ancient Rome
As an independent branch of world art, the architecture of Ancient Rome took a very long time to form, around the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. Despite the fact that many buildings of those times have already crumbled, they continue to fascinate with their remains and individual elements. The Roman Empire was one of the great, if not the greatest, which laid the foundation for a new era. Public places of that time could accommodate tens of thousands of people (basilicas, amphitheaters, shopping markets), and there was always something to strive for. Religion also did not fade into the background; the list of building structures in Rome included temples, altars, and tombs.
Comparing with the whole world, even historians came to the conclusion that it was difficult or simply impossible to find equal rivals for the architecture of Rome and Roman engineering. Aqueducts, bridges, roads, fortresses, canals as architectural objects are only a small part of the list of what they used on all fronts. They changed the principles of ancient Greek architecture, primarily the order system: they combined the order with an arched structure.
Great importance in the formation of Roman culture was given to the style of the Hellenes, who were supporters of architecture on a huge scale and the development of urban centers. But humanism and the ability to inherit the harmonious Greek style were omitted in Rome, giving preference to the exaltation of powerful emperors. They sharply emphasized the power of the army. Hence all the pathos, which was the basis of many decorations of buildings and structures.
The variety of structures and the general scale of buildings in Rome are much higher than in Greece. The construction of huge buildings became possible thanks to changes in the technical principles of construction. This is how new brick and concrete structures appear. They made it possible to cover large spans, speeding up the construction process. It was also important that with the use of such construction methods, professional craftsmen were increasingly abandoned, and slaves and unskilled workers were trusted. This significantly reduced construction costs.
Stages of development of Roman architecture
1st period
The stages of development of Roman architecture can be divided into 4 periods. The first and shortest begins from the founding of ancient Rome and ends in the 2nd century. BC e. This period is not rich in architectural monuments, and those that appeared were the heritage of the Etruscans. Almost everything that was built during this period was publicly accessible. It brought collective benefits to the settlements. This category included canals for cleansing the city of sewage, which through them fell into the Tiber. The Mamertine prison and the first basilicas can also be attributed to buildings that were useful.
II period
The second stage is usually called “Greek”. From the middle of the 2nd century, a serious influence of Greek architecture on Roman architecture began. Strong influence remained until the end of republican rule (31 BC). It is believed that at this time the first marble temples began to appear, replacing the usual types of stones and travertines. In their design they were very similar to the Greek ones, but the architects tried to make noticeable differences.
Roman temples throughout these years looked oblong with 4 corners. The foundation was usually high, with an attached staircase along the front side. Climbing the stairs, you find yourself next to the columns. Going a little deeper, there is a door that leads to the main hall. The main lighting comes through this door, so it is often open.
Along with such temples of the ancient Greek type, the Romans erected round-shaped temples in honor of the Gods. These were mainly their own ideas using Greek elements. One of these can be considered the Temple of Portunus; surrounded by 20 columns, this historical object has survived to this day. The cone-shaped marble roof is a good example of the Roman individual style.
The number of communities of buildings included not only buildings associated with religion, but also many others:
- Tabularium - a huge building designed to preserve archives;
- The wooden theater of Scaurus is one of the most interesting buildings of this period. Includes over three hundred marble columns and bronze statues, could accommodate 80,000 visitors;
- The first stone theater was built in honor of the goddess Venus.
All history about them disappeared with them. However, it is worth noting that using modern three-dimensional modeling technologies, it was proven that these structures were built very competently. For example, the “Stone Theater” was located in such a way that the stage faced the northeast. Since under Augustus traditionally performances and celebrations were held in the morning, all the sun's rays fell on the stage and not on the theater visitors.
III period
In terms of significance, the most effective period in the history of Roman architecture. The beginning is considered from the arrival of Augustus to the republican throne and ends in 138 AD. e.
The technologies of the Romans began to actively use concrete. A new stage in the construction of basilicas, circuses, and libraries begins. Trials were held there to identify the best chariot riders. A new type of monumental art is gaining popularity - the triumphal arch. At the same time, the technology was constantly improved with the help of new constructions dedicated to new victories of the future empire.
Roman art was not as elegant as Greek structures, but the technical skill of construction remained at the highest level throughout the centuries. The Colosseum (the largest amphitheater of antiquity) and the Pantheon Temple (built in the name of the Gods) are famous throughout the world.
The introduction of Greek architectural features gained mass popularity and continued to spread to the western and northern regions of Europe. Most Greek architects became famous with the help of the Romans, who commissioned Greek copies that were better preserved than the originals. The Romans, unlike the Greeks, adhered to their concept of sculptural traditions. They made busts of their ancestors to show prototypes of their family. The Greeks used such sculptures as works of art in the home. This simplicity and bright individuality of Roman portrait art shows it from a new side for us.
Over the course of this period, all architectural structures go through stages of development, improvement and increase the level of majesty. Elements of luxury are widely used and for the first time the features of oriental art begin to creep in.
IV period
After Hadrian's departure from power, Roman architectural art quickly began its decline. All those decorations that were previously used begin to seem unnecessary and inappropriate, and their use is less and less correct. This period continues until the complete establishment of Christianity and the retreat of paganism into the background. The period of decline is characterized by the fact that every ruler wants to go down in history with the help of majestic buildings.
This period also continues to be distinguished by oriental elements, which are increasingly visible in architectural art. They begin to dominate the classics of the genre. Constructions under the last rulers of the empire in such remote areas of dominion as Syria and Arabia testify especially eloquently to this. This was noticeable in the change in the swelling of the roof surface and the abundance of unnecessary accessories. Often mysterious, fantastic forms were erected, which were considered symbols of the eastern direction of architecture.
The Greatness of Rome in the Temples
One of the first structures erected by Augustus, dedicated to the deified idol of Julius Caesar. Built in 29 BC. The temple was created in the modest style of the Ionic order. The site of Caesar's cremation was located separately. The decorated hall has designated places for speakers, which replaced the tribunal that existed here, concentrated for many years in the western part.
Altar of Peace
A monumental building of ancient Rome, which wrote into history the victory of Augustus over the Spaniards and Gauls. It was built in 13 BC. e. In appearance, it looked like a fence with right angles, 6 m high, in the center of which there was a step with an altar. Along the perimeter of the fence there were 2 through passages, through which one could approach the altar. On the opposite walls were depicted the processions of Augustus to offer sacrifice to the altar.
The monument embodied particles of all the cultures that preceded Roman architecture. By the type of construction one can judge the Italian style, and by the arrangement of the ornament on the bottoms and tops one can judge the Etruscan principles. The exquisite craftsmanship of the relief of the altar speaks of a strong Greek influence.
Temple of Mars Ultor
One of the largest temples in Rome. The width of the façade alone is about 35 m. The columns rise up to 18 m. The interior decoration was mainly made of marble with wooden ceilings. Having a solemn appearance inside, the temple evoked a feeling of delight among the people present in it. The date of creation of this historical monument is considered to be 2 BC. e. Greek elements can be traced in almost all stages of architecture.
Pantheon
The Pantheon Temple can be called a special place in Rome. The second name is “Temple of All Gods”. A lot of temples of ancient times were built by order of emperors, and the Pantheon was no exception. The Pantheon was dedicated primarily to the two gods Venus and Mars; they were considered the guardians of the Julian family. The building consisted of three parts, which were intertwined with each other. It was named after the architect who carried out the work, but it is believed that the Pantheon was his pseudonym. The Pantheon was built in 118-128, and over the years it was restored several times. Today, only a small part of it remains, which does not allow one to enjoy the full majesty of the temple of that period.
Ancient Rome sculpture
The monumental art of the ancient Romans was significantly inferior to the Greeks. The Romans never managed to create the greatest sculptural monuments and compete with the Greeks on these frontiers. But it was still possible to enrich plastic with its elements.
The best results were achieved in portrait art. The Roman people transferred their observation to every feature of man and his unique individuality. Ideal portraits were created, as well as portraits in which one could see the human negative and the realism of the artistic form. With the help of sculptures, they first launched propaganda for the culturalization of society. They built monuments to famous personalities and made structures of triumph.
The principles of construction of temples in Ancient Rome before the adoption of Christianity were based on Etruscan traditions.
Types of temples of Ancient Rome
Architectural monuments of Ancient Rome were divided into two categories according to the purposes of use:
- Basilicas and temples for religious ceremonies.
- Amphitheatres, aqueducts and other buildings for social, defensive and political purposes.
Let's focus on the first group of buildings - temples of Rome.
The pagan religion was borrowed by the Romans from the Etruscans, along with the system of government. One of the oldest examples of buildings for performing ritual ceremonies is the Tuscan Temple, described in the writings of Vitruvius.
The plan of the building corresponded to the canons of a Greek temple. The entrance to the halls was decorated with a double row of columns with terracotta elements characteristic of the Dorian style. According to this scheme, the Temple of Jupiter Capitalius was also built, the story of the construction of which is contained in the writings of Dionysius of Halicarnassus.
The rest of the temple of ancient Rome has modified features of Greek construction traditions. During the consular era, three orders were accepted:
- Ionian - Temple of Fortuna Virilis.
- Dorian - Temple of Piety.
- Corinthian - all temples from the reign of Tiberius to Diocletian. The style was used to create facades.
Temples of ancient Greece and Rome: differences
Roman temples of the late period were distinguished from Greek ones by several elements:
- The depth of the building's portico was much greater among the Romans;
- the rule about surrounding a building with steps, characteristic of, was ignored in Rome;
- in the front part, a base with a platform was erected, which was rather an exception in Greek culture.
The standard shape of a circle gave uniformity to Greek and Roman temples. The Temple of Vesta and the largest building in Rome, the Pantheon Temple, were built according to this model. The cella in it is covered with a dome more than 43 m high.
For a long time, the creation was considered to be the merit of Agrippa. After Shedan's discovery, it was possible to establish that architectural elements were created at different times. The circular shaped cella was built during the Antonine era, from 100 to 125 AD. Before the reign of Agrippa, the Pantheon consisted of 10 columns; after the emperor took office, their number was reduced to eight. This is how the temple of Rome can be seen today.
The temples of Roma and Venus have an elongated cella with a vault, which was rare in the architecture of the empire.
Basilica Pantheon, Rome Civil temples of ancient Rome: basilicas
Basilicas, which were buildings for religious purposes, were used in Rome for civil purposes.
Basilicas were intended for conducting legal proceedings, covering political and social events, and holding public meetings. Previously, state negotiations were conducted in the open space of the Roman forums.
The construction of the first basilica dates back to 180 BC. the time of Cato. The construction scheme was borrowed from ancient Greece.
Basilica Pantheon, Rome The following features were characteristic of Roman basilicas:
- three naves - central and two on the side;
- the side naves were built on two floors;
- wooden rafters were necessarily located above the building;
- the width was from 1/3 to 1/2 the length of the building;
- the presence of transverse nephv;
- the building was divided in width into five parts: two parts were occupied by the side naves, the other three by the middle nave;
- the columns were built in 2 tiers: one 1/4 higher than the other;
- the lower floor was used for business meetings, the upper floor was for walking;
- the tiers were separated by a stylobate, which was just below the upper tier.
Capital Hill, Rome The most famous basilicas of Rome:
- Ulpia, built at the end of the Forum of Trajan according to the sketch of the architecture of Apollodorus.
- Basilicas in Pergamon and Trier, the construction of which is attributed to.
- Well-preserved Roman basilicas in: Mousmiye, Sanamen, Constantine.
Based on the buildings of the Republican period, one can speak of the deep religiosity of the Romans. There were more temples and basilicas in cities than buildings for secular purposes.
Pantheon of Rome served as a place of worship for the cults of Jupiter (), Mars (Greek Ares, patron of war) and Quirinus (symbol of royal power in the tradition of ancient Greece). The religious basis of the trinity was laid down in the system of distribution of functions in the state apparatus of Rome: religious, social and military.
Important historical events are associated with the Temple of Portuna, located next to the cattle market in the Boar Forum. In 390 BC. Rome was attacked by the Gauls. Local residents had to take refuge on Capitol Hill, the Roman army was defeated.
The Gauls then imposed a tribute calculated in gold. After 800 years, the Goths will attempt to capture the capital of the ancient world, after which the Romans will begin an extensive campaign to capture neighboring states.
Later buildings of religious significance combine the religious traditions of the conquered territories of the Sabines, Latins and Etruscans. Thus, the Romans tried to reflect the cosmopolitan nature of the new center of intersection of interests of ancient peoples.
Temples of ancient Rome: presentation
Basilica of Pergamon, Rome
