Types of Roman troops. Ancient rome army

By the 3rd century. BC. Rome became the strongest state in Italy. In continuous wars such a perfect instrument of attack and defense was forged - the Roman army. Its entire strength usually amounted to four legions, that is, two consular armies. Traditionally, when one consul went on a campaign, the second remained in Rome. If necessary, both armies operated in different theaters of war.

The legions were accompanied by allied contingents of infantry and cavalry. The legion of the Republic era itself consisted of 4,500 people, 300 of them were horsemen, the rest were infantry: 1,200 lightly armed soldiers (velites), 1,200 heavily armed soldiers of the first line (hastati), 1,200 heavy infantry made up the second line (principles) and the last 600, the most experienced warriors represented the third line (triarii).

The main tactical unit in the legion was the maniple, consisting of two centuries. Each century was commanded by a centurion, one of them was also the commander of the entire maniple. The maniple had its own banner (badge). Initially it was a bundle of hay on a pole, then a bronze image of a human hand, a symbol of power, was attached to the top of the pole. Below, military awards were attached to the banner staff.

The armament and tactics of the Roman army in ancient times did not differ significantly from those of the Greeks. However, the strength of the Roman military organization lay in its exceptional flexibility and adaptability: as the wars that the Romans fought, they borrowed the strengths of enemy armies and changed their tactics depending on the specific conditions in which a particular war was fought.

Infantryman's weapons. Thus, the traditional heavy weapons of the infantryman, similar to the hoplite weapons of the Greeks, changed as follows. The solid metal armor was replaced by chain mail or plate armor, which was lighter and less restrictive to movement. Leggings were no longer used, because instead of a round metal shield, a semi-cylindrical one (scutum) about 150 cm high appeared, covering the entire body of the warrior, except for the head and feet. It consisted of a plank base covered with several layers of leather. The edges of the scutum were bound with metal, and in the center it had a convex metal plaque (umbon). The legionnaire had soldier's boots (kaligs) on his feet, and his head was protected by an iron or bronze helmet with a crest (for a centurion, the crest was located across the helmet, for ordinary soldiers - along).

If the Greeks had a spear as their main type of offensive weapon, the Romans had a short (about 60 cm) sword made of high-quality steel. The traditional Roman double-edged, pointed sword (gladius) has a rather late origin - it was borrowed from Spanish soldiers when the Romans experienced its advantages in hand-to-hand combat. In addition to the sword, each legionnaire was armed with a dagger and two throwing spears. The Roman throwing spear (pilum) had a long (about a meter), thin tip made of soft iron, ending with a sharply sharpened and hardened sting. At the opposite end, the tip had a groove into which a wooden shaft was inserted and then secured. Such a spear could also be used in hand-to-hand combat, but it was designed primarily for throwing: piercing into the enemy’s shield, it bent so that it was impossible to pull it out and throw it back. Since several such spears usually hit one shield, it had to be thrown, and the enemy remained defenseless against the attack of a closed formation of legionnaires.

Battle tactics. If initially the Romans acted in battle as a phalanx, like the Greeks, then during the war against the warlike mountain tribes of the Samnites they developed a special manipulative tactic, which looked like this.

Before the battle, the legion was usually built along maniples, in 3 lines, in a checkerboard pattern: the first was made up of maniples of the hastati, the second of the principles, and the triarii stood at a slightly greater distance from them. Cavalry lined up on the flanks, and light infantry (velites), armed with darts and slings, marched in front of the front in loose formation.

Depending on the specific situation, the legion could form the continuous formation necessary for the attack, either by closing the maniples of the first line, or by pushing the maniples of the second line into the intervals between the maniples of the first. Triarii maniples were usually used only when the situation became critical, but usually the outcome of the battle was decided by the first two lines.

Having reformed from the pre-battle (chessboard) formation, in which it was easier to maintain formation, into the combat one, the legion moved at an accelerated pace towards the enemy. The velites made up the first wave of attackers: having pelted the enemy formation with darts, stone and lead balls from slings, they then ran back to the flanks and into the spaces between the maniples. The legionnaires, finding themselves 10-15 m from the enemy, rained down a hail of spears and pilums on him and, drawing their swords, began hand-to-hand combat. At the height of the battle, cavalry and light infantry protected the legion's flanks and then pursued the fleeing enemy.

Camp. If the battle went badly, the Romans had the opportunity to find protection in their camp, which was always set up, even if the army stopped for only a few hours. The Roman camp was rectangular in plan (however, where possible, natural fortifications of the area were also used). It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The top of the rampart was additionally protected by a palisade and was guarded by sentries around the clock. In the center of each side of the camp there was a gate through which the army could enter or exit the camp at short notice. Inside the camp, at a distance sufficient to prevent enemy missiles from reaching it, the tents of soldiers and commanders were set up - in a once and for all determined order. In the center stood the commander's tent - the praetorium. In front of her there was free space, sufficient to line up an army here, if the commander required it.

The camp was a kind of fortress that the Roman army always carried with them. It happened more than once that the enemy, having already defeated the Romans in a field battle, was defeated when attempting to storm the Roman camp.

Subjugation of Northern and Central Italy. Continuously improving their military organization, using the troops of conquered peoples (the so-called allies) to strengthen themselves, the Romans at the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. subjugated Central and Northern Italy. In the struggle for the South, they had to face such a dangerous and previously unknown enemy as Pyrrhus, king of the Greek state of Epirus and one of the most talented commanders of the Hellenistic era.

Ancient Roman army(lat. exercitus, Early - classis)- one of the aspects of the history of Ancient Rome, is deeply studied, mainly in specialized circles. The Roman army became a decisive factor in the development of the power of its state.

1. Army and state in Ancient Rome

When we talk about Ancient Rome, images associated with the Roman army naturally pop up in our heads: be it the legendary victorious legions of Caesar, the brilliant metropolitan praetorian conspirators, or the tired auxiliary border guards from Limes. Indeed, the army of Ancient Rome was inseparable from the state. She is not only his obligatory element, support, “power appendage”. The army is the basis of life in Rome, no matter what historical period from the early Republic to the late Empire we are considering. Roman statehood, in its deepest essence, was itself built on the army principle: the most severe discipline and clear regulation in both the administrative, economic and judicial life of Roman society. According to many Western scientists, the militarization of society in Ancient Rome, especially in the early period, was comprehensive and expressed much more strongly, even in comparison with Sparta. No wonder the Roman term “Centuria” (lat. centuria- “Hundred”) meant both an electoral-territorial unit and a military organizational unit. Soldiers and officers were everything for Rome: a foreign military force, law enforcement forces, firefighters, minor officials, engineers and builders of roads, fortresses, aqueducts, jailers and even caretakers in schools and temples! The army, administration and state in Ancient Rome represented a single whole. Thus, the study of the ancient Roman state is impossible without a detailed study of its army - and vice versa.

2. Military organization of the Etruscan-Roman army of the royal period

Considering the most ancient period of Roman history, it should be noted that this period is mainly legendary and we do not have any reliable information about the Rome of the ancient kings. However, as Hans Lehlbrück writes in his work “The History of Military Art within the Framework of Political History”:

“But regarding the development of Roman state law and military affairs, among the Roman lovers of antiquity there lived a tradition that was controlled by modernity itself, and therefore never drowned in fiction and, so to speak, historically disciplined even legend.”

Roman army of the early 6th century BC. . was probably a typical Etruscan army. When talking about this period, historians use the term “Etruscan-Roman army.” Under the first Etruscan king, Tarquin the Ancient, such an army consisted of three parts: the Etruscans, who formed a phalanx like the ancient Greek, the Romans and the Latins, the latter preferred to fight in a free formation and were used on the flanks. Then, according to Livy, King Servius Tullius carried out a reform of the army, dividing all residents into centuries into four categories (depending on the level of equipment), thus introducing a property qualification.

• The third category had the same equipment as the second, with the exception of greaves. It is possible that these units already fought according to the Italian system.

• The fourth category consisted of 20 centuries of light infantry - spearmen and dart throwers.

When the need arose to convene an army, each century fielded the number that was needed in accordance with the size of the army. The poorest population was exempted from military service. The army was divided into two parts, serving according to age. Veterans, warriors 45-60 years old, formed garrisons, as in Greece, and young ones participated in military campaigns. Only those persons who took part in 20 military campaigns when serving in the infantry or in 10 campaigns when serving in the cavalry were exempt from military service. Evasion from military service was punished very strictly, including sale into slavery.

3. Roman legion of the early republic period

At the end of the 6th century. BC That is, after the fall of royal power and the establishment of the republic, the king was replaced by two military leaders - praetors (from lat. praeire- “Go ahead”). All Roman citizens from 17 to 45 (46) years old were considered liable for military service and were part of the legion. Legion (from lat. Legere- Select, collect) originally meant the entire Roman army.

The early Republican legion consisted of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. This army was not yet professional. A warrior was drafted into the army only when necessary. When hostilities ceased, the army was disbanded. The warrior was supposed to provide himself with equipment, which led to a wide variety of weapons and armor.

Later, efforts were made to introduce uniform weapons and protection. A new gradation of the Roman legion into ranks was introduced not only on the basis of property qualifications, but also on the basis of different age categories. Young and poor warriors were required to be armed with a sword, 6 darts, a bow with a supply of arrows and slings for throwing stones. Such light infantry was called “command” (from lat. Velites-Cloth, that is, “dressed in embroidered shirts”). These warriors had no armor at all, were protected only by a helmet and a light shield and were used as skirmishers. At first, commanders were recruited separately from the legion and were not included in its combat crew.

The next group of warriors in terms of age and property status was called hastat (from lat. Hasta- Spear), lat. hastati- "Spearmen". They were armed with a sword, heavy (Gasta) and light throwing (pilum) spears and full defensive weapons. The third group of the “most blooming age” is principles (lat. principles), They were armed in the same way as the hastati, but they were already experienced fighters and in battle they were located behind the ranks of the hastati in order to come to their aid through gaps in the ranks.

The oldest and most experienced veterans in battle were called triarii - (lat. triarii) - They had a long spear instead of a Pilum. In battle, they lined up according to principles and represented the last reserve of the legion. The expression “It came to Triarius” has since become a household word.

The Romans paid great attention to the selection and training of command personnel. The senior command staff was represented by six military tribunes - tribe commanders. Tribe is an analogue of the Greek phylum, also a dual administrative-military unit, which includes four centuries. The tribunes were elected by the popular assembly from both the patricians and the plebeians. The century was commanded by a centurion, who was appointed from among the most distinguished warriors. The centurion had disciplinary power in his century and enjoyed great authority.

Thus, we can conclude that in its initial period the legion was both organizational and tactical, and, according to Hans Delbryuk, also a military-administrative army unit. However, over time, thanks to the successful conquest, Rome no longer lacks one legion to defend its possessions. The number of legions is growing inexorably. With the expansion of new territories, the struggle between the old patrician families and the plebeians intensifies. In 367 BC the laws of Licinius and Sextius were adopted to abolish the positions of military praetors; instead, two consuls were to be elected, including one of the plebeians (the position of praetor was assigned to second-class masters, subordinate to the consuls and was mainly in charge of city justice). Under normal conditions, each consul had two legions at his disposal.

4. Military organization of the army of Ancient Rome after Camillus’ reform

In the second half of the 4th century BC. the political victories of the plebeians led to a significant expansion of the contingents from which the army was recruited. Military reform became inevitable. Such a reform was the Camillian reform. The soldiers were given a salary, against which they were given uniforms, weapons and food. This equalized the position of the haves and have-nots, which served as an impetus for the introduction of uniform weapons. The uniform armament, in turn, made it possible to reorganize the legion, making it more uniform and functional. A new basic army organizational and tactical unit has appeared - the maniple (from lat. Manipulus- "A handful of"). Each legion was divided into 10 maniples, the maniple consisted of 120 heavily armed legionnaires and was divided into two centuries. The centurion of the first century was also the commander of the maniple. The tactical formation of ranks in maniples behind three rows - hastat, principles, triaria - remained, but now the legion became more maneuverable in battle and could split up along the front, while maintaining order. The legion was the superior and the maniple the inferior tactical unit. Thus, the structure of the Roman army remained based on a joint organizational and tactical division.

The entire Roman army during this period consisted of the two aforementioned consular armies of two legions each. Sometimes the armies united. Then for one day one of the consuls commanded all four legions, and the next day the other.

The Roman army was strengthened by the so-called “allies” - the troops of the conquered Italics who did not have Roman citizenship. The Allies were obliged to provide auxiliary armed forces. Usually, for one Roman legion, the allies fielded 5,000 infantry and 900 horsemen, who were supported at their own expense. The allied troops lined up on the flanks of the Roman legions in units of 500 people, such units were called “Cohort” (from the Latin. Cohors- "Sweet"). The cohorts were subordinate to the Roman high command, the composition of the junior commanders was determined by the allies themselves.

5. Legion after the transition to the manipular phalanx

Roman legion on the attack. Reconstruction

In the first half of the 3rd century BC. A new reorganization of the Roman army followed. First of all, monotonous equipment and armament of the manipule was introduced. If previously each maniple consisted of hastati, principles and Triarius, now it was equipped with only one of these types of infantry. Maniples ceased to be mixed and became specialized. In addition, the number of maniples in the legion increased from 10 to 30. Now the legion consisted of 30 maniples (10 each in the hastat, principes and Triarius, respectively). In the first two groups, the structure was the same - 120 heavy infantry and 40 velita. In Triaria the number of infantry in the maniple was 60 heavy infantry and 40 velita. Each maniple consisted of two centuries, but they had no independent significance, since the maniple remained the smallest tactical unit.

The legion's three hundred horsemen were divided into ten turmes, each containing 30 men. The armed horsemen were according to the Greek model: armor, a round shield and a spear. Each cavalry turma had three decurions - "tenmen" and three selected trailing ones - options (lat. options). The first of the decurions commanded the tour. The decurions, like the centurions, were elected by the tribunes.

In total, the legion thus numbered 4,500 people, including 1,200 velites and 300 horsemen.

5.1. Troop control

Much attention began to be paid to issues of troop control and logistics organization. The army began to include one century of scribes and trumpeters, as well as two centuries of blacksmiths and carpenters, fleets of siege engines and centuries of engineers.

5.2. Recruitment into the Roman army

Roman legionnaire

The recruitment of the Roman army looked like this: At the beginning of each year, two main military magistrates - consuls - were elected. Elected consuls appointed 24 military tribunes. Ten of them were senior, their service life should have been at least ten years. The remaining 14 had to serve for at least five years. The first two of the elected senior tribunes were appointed to the first legion, the next three to the second, the next two to the third and the next three to the fourth. Junior tribunes were appointed according to the same principle: the first four were in the first legion, the next three in the second, etc. As a result, there were six tribunes in each legion.

Like the Greeks, military service was considered honorable in Ancient Rome and was not available to low-income people. Every year on a designated day, all citizens who could serve were assembled in the Capitol. There they were divided according to property qualifications. The poor were sent to serve in the navy. The next group was assigned to the infantry, while the richest were sent to the cavalry. The censors selected the 1,200 people needed for all four legions before the start of the main conscription campaign. Three hundred horsemen were assigned to each legion.

According to Polybius, those who were selected for service in the foot army were divided into tribes. From each tribe, four people of approximately the same age and build were selected, who were presented in front of the stands. The tribune of the first legion was chosen first, then the second and third, and fourth legions received the rest. In the next group of four recruits, the tribune soldier of the second legion chose first, and the first legion took the last. The procedure continued until 4,200 men were recruited for each legion (it is problematic to select all 16,800 men in this way, but we will leave it to Polybius).

The recruitment was completed and the newcomers took an oath. The tribunes chose one man who had to come forward and swear to obey his commanders and carry out their orders to the best of his ability. Then everyone else took a step forward and vowed to do as he did (“Idem in me”). Then the tribunes indicated the place and date of the meeting for each legion so that everyone was distributed into their units.

While recruits were being recruited, the consuls sent orders to the allies, indicating the number of troops they needed, as well as the day and place of the meeting. Local magistrates recruited recruits and took them to the oath - just like in Rome. Then they appointed a commander and a paymaster and gave the order to march.

After arriving at the appointed place, the recruits were again divided into groups according to their wealth and age. The young and poor were sent to the Velit. Of the latter, the youngest, gained hastate. Those who were in full bloom became principles. The older veterans of past campaigns became Triaria, they were also called pilami. There could not be more than 600 Triarii in one legion.

Then, from each type of army (with the exception of velitas), the tribunes selected ten centurions, who, in turn, selected ten more people, also called a centurion. Your tribune centurion was the eldest. The very coenurion of the legion (primus pilus) had the right to participate in the military council along with the tribunes. Centurions were chosen based on their stamina and courage. Each centurion appointed himself an assistant (optio).

Roman horsemen

The tribunes and centurions divided each type of army (hastat, principi and Triarius) into ten detachments - maniples. The first maniple of Triarius was commanded by the primipile - the first centurion. As mentioned above, the allies also formed detachments of 4-5 thousand people and 900 horsemen. Such allied “legions” were called ala (from lat. Alae- Wing), because during the battle they were located on the wings of the Roman army. One such Ali was assigned to each of the legions. Thus, the word "legion" for this period should be understood as a military unit with approximately 10,000 foot soldiers and about 1,200 horsemen.

A third of the best cavalry of the allies and a fifth of their best infantry were selected in order to form a special combat unit - the extraordinaries (lat. extraordinarii). They were a striking force for special assignments and were supposed to cover the legion on the march. The internal organization of the Allied army for this period is not described in the sources, but most likely it was similar to the Roman one, especially among the Latin allies.

Since the long siege of Veyiv at the beginning of the 4th century BC. Legionnaires began to be paid. A Roman infantryman received two coins a day, a centurion - twice as much, and a horseman - six obols. The Roman infantryman received support in the form of 35 liters. grain per month, rider - 100 l. wheat and 350 l. barley (taking into account feeding the horse and groom). A fixed fee for these products was deducted by the quaestor from the salary of both foot and horse soldiers. Deductions were also made for clothing and equipment items that required replacement.

Allied infantry also received 35 liters. grain per person, and the riders received only 70 liters. wheat and 250 l. barley. However, these products were free for the Allies.

Thus, the legion with its heavy infantry, cavalry, additional allied cavalry, light infantry, siege weapons and sappers (engineers) included all branches of the ground forces and was, although cumbersome, a self-sufficient army unit.

6. Military reform of Mary and its influence on the organization of the Roman army

Read more in the article Military reform of Gaius Maria

Roman warrior equipment

This is how the Roman legions entered the period of great wars. Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, finally, Africa, Greece and Asia have experienced "The Roman manipulus tramps peacefully." The number of legions begins to grow rapidly.

However, already during the 2nd Punic War it became obvious that the military system of Rome was far from ideal. Despite the fact that military service was paid, the salary was mainly used for current expenses. The Roman citizen still saw peasant farming or trade as the main source of income for himself. Therefore, it is not surprising that the soldiers did not at all strive to serve longer. The further the theater of military operations advanced, the longer the campaigns lasted (and this happened more and more often), the more difficult it was to recruit recruits.

Those who ended up in the army looked forward to their liberation. By the end of the 2nd century BC. Rome found itself embroiled in a long war with the Numidians. This war was so unpopular that it became almost impossible to recruit reinforcements for the legions. In 107 BC Marius was elected consul, who focused all his attention on strengthening the Roman army. He granted access to the legions to all volunteers who had Roman citizenship, regardless of their property status. Poor people poured into the legions. These people did not at all strive to get rid of service as quickly as possible - on the contrary, they were ready to serve all their lives. Many could have already made a career from a simple soldier to a centurion. Volunteers connected their lives with the fate of their commanders; the main source of income for them was not pay, but military booty. People who devoted their lives to the army did not have a farm to which they could return after service; they could only count on the fact that when they became veterans, after 16 years of service, the commander would provide them with a plot of land for their release. Thus, the abolition of the property qualification laid the foundations for the creation of a professional Roman army, and the role of the commander increased enormously.

Under the old system of recruitment, the legions were formed anew at each campaign and therefore lacked a sense of cohesion. Since the time of Mary this situation has changed. Each legion received its own flag. The famous Roman eagle - Aquila, for many centuries became a symbol of victory and power.

Around the same time, the structure of the legion changed radically. Even in the second Punic War, when forming legions, due to a lack of manpower, they abandoned the age principle of division into hastat, principes and Triarius. Now all soldiers began to arm themselves with a sword and pilum and defend themselves with one type of armor. The names hastat, principle and Triara were preserved only to designate centurion positions and the order of introducing infantry into battle (the tactics of gradually introducing soldiers into battle were preserved, but the legion could be built in one, two, three, or even four rows). The maniples increasingly lost their former tactical importance; they were increased to 120 people and united into cohorts of three maniples each. The tactical unit became the cohort. Thus, the legion began to consist not of thirty maniples, but of ten cohorts. The division into centuries was preserved, as was the rank of centurion, and in camps and fortresses soldiers were still located in centuries.

Legionnaire with ammunition

After the Civil Rights War, all Italians living south of the Po River received Roman citizenship. For the military organization, this meant that all differences between the Roman and allied legions were eliminated. From now on, the legion becomes just that: a legion, and does not include an equal number of soldiers from the allied cities of Rome.

The trend towards eliminating distinctions within the legion, and between the legion and the Alas (allied legion), was supported by the abolition of the lightly armed skirmishers (velites) and the legions of cavalry that were now part of the legion. Now, although the legion had become a perfect fighting force, sometimes it needed the support of other branches of the army.

"Auxilia" or "auxils" appeared - auxiliary troops that are neither Roman nor allied. Since the war with Hannibal, the Romans, imitating him, began to use military specialists from all over the Mediterranean: Cretan archers, Balearic slingers. Spain supplied both cavalry and infantry, mostly heavy. After the conquest of Numidia, auxilia of Numidian light cavalry appeared. The Romans now needed large detachments of cavalry to support the legions and professional light infantry to disrupt enemy formations and fight on rough terrain.

To Maria, the old-style army was always accompanied by a long train. The convoys were easy prey for the enemy and greatly slowed down the advance of the troops. Mari forced the legionnaires to carry all the necessary supplies and equipment on themselves, for which the soldiers received the nickname “Mari’s mules.” The convoys were not eliminated, but were greatly reduced and became more organized.

7. Pisno-Republican Roman Legion of the Age of Caesar

Ballista

The final transformation of the Roman army into a professional one occurred in the middle of the 1st century BC. e. under Pompeii and Caesar. Caesar organized the legions he recruited on new principles. The strength of the legion now ranged from 3,000 to 4,500 people. Each legion had to have its own cavalry. Each legion included 55 ballistas, heavy metal arrows, and 10 onagers and catapults for throwing stones. The legion's "artillery park" has noticeably strengthened. The legion's convoy again grew to 500 mules and now carried siege equipment, camp supplies and utensils. Caesar used Gallic and German cavalry, using the tactics of combined cavalry and light infantry battles. In total, the allied cavalry of the Gauls and Germans in Caesar's army was 4000 - 5000 horsemen. Since the time of Caesar, the name “quaestor” - “Explorer”), from people no younger than thirty years of age. Other horsemen had to be content with the positions of officers in the Roman army. The service life of officers was unlimited. Prefects (lat. praefectus- “Chief, commander”) - senior officials of the army and navy. In the legion, prefects could command the cavalry (praefectus equitus), sappers (praefectus fabrum), and the legion camp (praefectus castorum). What was common to the post of prefect was that they held their position individually (and not in pairs, like tribunes and consuls), their position was more or less permanent and they were appointed personally by the military leader. The highest position in the legion was held by legate (lat. legatus- "The Chosen One"). Legates were usually appointed senators, which in the late republic meant that he had to first serve at least as a quaestor. The legates of Pompey and Caesar were a close-knit group of experienced warriors, although sometimes, for political reasons, not quite suitable people were appointed as legates, as well as tribunes. The legates were the right hand of the commander-in-chief, his closest assistants. Caesar often instructed his legates to command either a legion, or several legions, or auxiliary cavalry, or a separate unit in a particularly responsible area. But usually legates were inextricably linked with one legion.

A commander's headquarters appeared, which became a kind of training school for future military leaders. The staff consisted of legates, tribunes and prefects. Young volunteers are seconded to the headquarters and act as adjutants. There was a personal guard for the commander. Since ancient times, the consul had twelve lictors who acted as his personal guard. Lictors carried bundles of rods with axes inside the fascia (lat. fasces)), As a sign that the consul has the power to punish Roman citizens, up to and including the death penalty. However, it became obvious that such protection was not enough for a commander during military operations. This is how the extraordinaries (lat. extraordinarii) - The consular office is standing.

As early as 133 BC. Scipio Africanus recruited a personal guard of 500 selected fighters. They became known as the praetorian cohort, from the praetorium - the main square of the camp where the commander pitched his tent. By the end of the republic, all military leaders already had their own praetorian cohort.

The overwhelming majority of the command staff in the legion were, as before, centurions commanding centuries. The first commander of the century commanded the maniples. The cohort was commanded by the centurion of the century Triarius. The six centurions of the first cohort of each legion could take part in meetings of the military council.

Consuls, from the time of the kings, still inherited the positions of commanders-in-chief. The Roman Republic did not know the sole command of the army. Moreover, even in the Punic Wars, in the face of the invasion of Hannibal, the Roman consuls continued to change annually. However, in addition to the troops that were recruited by new consuls or received from their predecessors, there were other units, under the command of former consuls or praetors, to which additional powers were added, raising them to the rank of proconsuls and propraetor. This expansion of the powers of the highest ranks of the army turned out to be the simplest way of appointing governors in the provinces, which Rome continued to acquire. As the theaters of war moved further away from Rome, the proconsul was often forced to fight alone, without a colleague to hold him back. Caesar was originally one of these proconsuls. He and his legions spent ten years in three Gallic provinces and newly conquered territories, and then returned the legions, which by that time had already finally become his “own”, and set off on a campaign against Rome. Thus, the Roman Republic fell under the attack of the veterans of the Gallic wars. The era of the Principate, the era of the Roman Empire, began.

8. Conclusions

Turning your gaze to the history of the Roman Republican army, you are struck by the fact that despite the strict adherence to the traditions and customs of antiquity, which were reflected in the systems of formation, organization and management of the legion, nevertheless, the army system of Ancient Rome was not ossified, but, on the contrary, responded in a timely manner to all the demands of the time, changes in enemy tactics, and the development of the political situation in the country. The Roman legions managed to defeat Notes

1. Delbrück G. History of military art. - St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1994. - T.1. - P. 191

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• Delbrück G. History of military art. - St. Petersburg: "Science", 1994.-t. I.

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• Conolly P. Greece and Rome. Encyclopedia of Military History. - M.: "Eksmo-Press", 2000.

• Razin E. A. History of military art.-M.: "Polygon". - 1994 I

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• Godsworthy A. Roman warfare.-London.-2000.

Roman army was the most powerful and advanced army of its time. It was thanks to her that the Roman Empire appeared - a huge part of Western Europe. And Rome itself was directly enriched by the army, thanks to which an influx of slaves and wealth into the capital was possible from the conquered territories.

The Roman army developed fighting techniques, the effectiveness of which was achieved through a strict and arduous training regime. All recruits in the Roman army were taught to be efficient and disciplined. The training was harsh, as was the punishment for failure. In battle, new recruits were always in the forefront, followed by more experienced soldiers. There were three reasons for this:

• firstly, such an arrangement should give confidence to newcomers, since they were followed by experienced warriors who had already participated in many battles;
• secondly, it would prevent new soldiers from running away from the battlefield if their courage suddenly deserts them;
• finally thirdly: those who go ahead will most likely be killed at the beginning of the battle. And the Roman army could not afford to lose experienced legionnaires, so the recruits went first, and the seasoned and experienced warriors were in the rear. It was believed that if a recruit in the front ranks survived the battle, he would gain military training and experience and become a valuable addition to the Roman army. Well, if he is killed, then his loss, as an inexperienced soldier, will not be too great.

The most important fighting unit of the Roman army was the legion under the command of a legate. It consisted of 5,000 - 6,000 legionnaires. The legion was divided into cohorts of 500 to 600 legionnaires, in which each hundred soldiers (centuria) was commanded by a centurion (from lat. Centurio- centurion).

The Romans used tried and tested tactics in battle. Each attack was carefully planned and based on years of experience, which is why they were so successful.

The Romans used cavalry to support the legionnaires. Its main task was to attack the front line along the flanks. Cavalry was also used to pursue the retreating enemy.

To provide additional assistance to the elite legionnaires, additional soldiers were partially used, who were recruited from the captured areas. As a rule, they were poorly trained and almost completely unfit for war, so they were used as scouts or archers who fired at the enemy during the advance of the main forces. Sometimes these soldiers were sent to attack enemy positions in order to make the main attack a little easier.

Enemy fortifications created certain problems for the Roman army. A frontal assault on any fortification or fort would result in heavy legionary casualties, although the use of a "turtle" formation greatly reduced these losses.

Rice. 1 Turtle formation

The Romans developed new and improved old weapons, which they subsequently armed their legionnaires with, and special assault devices, such as rams and siege towers, were also designed and created to destroy enemy fortifications. They were used to capture forts and fortresses with fewer casualties, protected legionnaires from arrows and made it possible to overcome walls. But they had one drawback: since they were made of wood and animal skins, they ignited very well.

The Roman army also used an early form of large catapult called "onager" for attack. Catapults threw large stone boulders, thereby destroying enemy walls. The Romans also used catapults to fire iron bolts at enemy lines.

All this required careful preparation and strict discipline. And one of the people who was responsible for this was a centurion. Each centurion (centurion) was required to ensure that his hundred (centuria) of legionnaires were capable and effective in battle. Any century that showed itself negatively in combat could be punished. Namely, every tenth century soldier was put to death. This punishment was called "decimus". It served as a stern warning to other centuries.

The Roman Empire was something of a gift for smart people: for centuries, classical education based on Latin allowed the elite to keep the plebeians away from the corridors of power. However, it was no wonder that the smart guy got confused in the details of the structure of the Roman army, and here’s why.

First, although the word “century” should mean a hundred, there were approximately 80 people in it. A cohort consisted of six centuries, and nine cohorts plus command staff, cavalry, and engineers constituted a legion.

Secondly, contrary to popular belief, most of the soldiers in the Roman army were not Romans at all. During the time of Hadrian, who immortalized himself by building a huge wall (Hadrian’s Wall), separating England from Scotland, the Roman army had 28 legions, that is, about 154,000 main soldiers, and more than 215,000 auxiliary troops, who were recruited mainly in the provinces.

It was an army of terrifying size, but the Romans had reasons for maintaining such an army. Together with the imperial praetorian guard, the total number of armed forces under Hadrian reached 380,000 people. According to the most conservative estimates, the population of the Roman Empire at that time was at least 65 million people (about a fifth of all inhabitants of the Earth).

The number of different types of troops of the Roman army of Emperor Hadrian (c. 130 AD) is represented by the height of the corresponding part of the pyramid (the picture is clickable and can be enlarged).

LET'S COMPARE THE ROMAN ARMY WITH THE MODERN ARMY OF GREAT BRITAIN

The population of Hadrian's empire is roughly the same size as that of modern Britain. How do the Roman army and the modern British army compare? There are now approximately 180,000 men on active service, but Britain also has about 220,000 reservists and volunteers, a total number clearly greater than Rome's. And where does Adrian stand against automatic rifles, fighter jets, and nuclear weapons? The Romans couldn’t even run away quickly in their sandals...

And they were built in a phalanx like the Macedonian one, however, in the descriptions of the battles of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. the dominant role of the cavalry and the auxiliary role of the infantry are clearly visible - the former was often even located and acted ahead of the infantry.

Beginning around the Latin War or earlier, the Romans adopted manipulative tactics. According to Livy and Polybius, it was carried out in a three-linear (hastati, principles and triarii in the rear reserve) formation with intervals, and the maniples of the principles stood against the intervals between the maniples of the hastati. The legions stood next to each other, although in some battles of the Second Punic War they stood one behind the other.

To fill the too widened intervals when moving over rough terrain, a second line served, individual detachments of which could move into the first line, and if this was not enough, a third line was used. In a collision with the enemy, the small remaining intervals were filled in by themselves, due to the freer arrangement of the soldiers for the convenience of using weapons. The Romans began using second and third lines to bypass enemy flanks at the end of the Second Punic War.

Construction according to G. Delbrück

Formation according to P. Connolly when approaching the enemy

Formation according to P. Connolly before the battle

The opinion that the Romans threw pilums when attacking, after which they switched to swords and changed lines of battle formation during the battle, was refuted by Delbrück, who showed that changing lines during close combat with swords was impossible. This was explained by the fact that for a quick and organized retreat of the hastati behind the principles, maniples must be placed at intervals equal to the width of the front of an individual maniple. At the same time, engaging in hand-to-hand combat with such intervals in the line would be extremely dangerous, since this would allow the enemy to envelop the hastati maniples from the flanks, which would lead to a quick defeat of the first line. According to Delbrück, in reality there was no change of lines in battle - the intervals between maniples were small and served only to facilitate maneuvering. However, most of the infantry was intended only to plug gaps in the first line. Later, relying in particular on Caesar’s “Notes on the Gallic War,” the opposite was again proven, although it was recognized that it was not coordinated maneuvers of orderly units.

• 1st class: offensive - gladius, hasta and darts ( tela), protective - helmet ( galea), shell ( lorica), bronze shield ( clipeus) and leggings ( ocrea);
• 2nd class - the same, without a shell and a scutum instead clipeus;
• 3rd class - the same, without leggings;
• 4th class - hasta and pike ( verutum).

• offensive - Spanish gladius ( gladius hispaniensis)

• protective - iron chain mail ( lorica hamata).

• offensive - dagger ( pugio).

At the beginning of the Empire:

• protective - segmented lorica ( lorica segmentata), chain mail with double covering on the shoulders, especially popular among horsemen and lightweight (up to 5-6 kg), shortened in auxiliary infantry units.

• offensive - “Pompeian” sword, weighted pilums.

• protective - scale armor ( lorica squamata"

A uniform

• paenula(short dark woolen cloak with a hood).

• tunic with long sleeves, sagum ( sagum) - a cloak without a hood, previously incorrectly considered a classic Roman military one.

Evocati

Soldiers who served their term and were demobilized, but were re-enlisted into the military on a voluntary basis, in particular on the initiative of, for example, a consul, were called evocati- lit. “newly called” (under Domitian, this was the name given to the elite guards of the equestrian class who guarded his sleeping quarters; presumably, similar guards retained their name under some subsequent emperors, cf. evocati Augusti in Hyginus). Usually they were included in almost every unit, and, apparently, if the military leader was popular enough among the soldiers, the number of veterans of this category in his army could increase. Along with the vexillaria, the evocati were exempt from a number of military duties - fortifying the camp, laying roads, etc. and were higher in rank than ordinary legionnaires, sometimes compared to horsemen or even candidates for centurions. For example, Gnaeus Pompey promised to promote his exes evocati to the centurions after the end of the civil war, but in totality all evocati could not be promoted to this rank. All contingent evocati usually commanded by a separate prefect ( praefectus evocatorum).

Battle awards ( dona militaria)

Officers:

• wreaths ( coronae);
• decorative spears ( hastae purae);
• checkboxes ( vexilla).

Soldier's:

• necklaces ( torques);
• falera ( phalerae);
• bracelets ( armillae).

Literature

• Maxfield, V. The Military Decorations of the Roman Army

Discipline

In addition to training, maintaining iron discipline ensured the overall high combat readiness and moral potential of the Roman army throughout more than a thousand years of its existence.

The following were used with greater or lesser frequency:

• replacing wheat with barley in rations;
• fine or partial confiscation of trophies obtained ( pecuniaria multa);
• temporary isolation from fellow soldiers or temporary removal from the camp;
• temporary deprivation of weapons;
• military exercises with luggage;
• standing guard without military clothing or even without caligas;
• famous spanking ( castigatio) by centurions of legionnaires with grapevines or, which was harsher and more shameful, with rods;
• salary reduction ( aere dirutus);
• correctional labor ( munerum indictio);
• public flogging in front of a century, cohort or whole legion ( animadversio fustium);
• demotion by rank ( gradus deiectio) or by type of army ( militiae mutatio);
• dishonorable discharge from service ( missio ignominiosa which sometimes befell entire squads);
• 3 types of execution: for soldiers - fustuary (according to Kolobov, this was the name for execution during decimation, while decimatio denoted a type of drawing of lots), for centurions - cutting with rods and beheading, and executions by lot (decimation, vicesimation and centesimation).

At the beginning of the 3rd century. BC e. A law was passed on the death penalty for those evading military service. Under Vegetia, executions were announced by a special trumpet signal - classicum.

Also, for poor night guard performance, theft, perjury and self-mutilation, soldiers could be driven through the ranks by their comrades armed with clubs, and the fear of this had an effective effect.

The dissolution of the legion was applied to rebellious (for political reasons or due to a decrease in wages) troops, and even then extremely rarely (notable is the legion created in the city by the rebellious procurator of Africa Lucius Clodius Macrus I Macriana Liberatrix, in which Galba executed the entire command staff before disbanding). Nevertheless, commanders-in-chief, even under emperors, enjoyed unlimited punitive power, except for senior officers, whom they could also sentence to death until then. By decree of Augustus they were deprived of this right.

Various punishments (fine, confiscation of property, imprisonment, even in some cases sale into slavery) could also be imposed if, during mobilization, boys and men from 17 to 46 years old, for example, did not enroll in the army.

On the other hand, of course, unwritten punishments were often used. For example, during the Latin War in 340 BC. e. the son of the consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, Titus Manlius the Younger, was beheaded by order of his own father for fighting outside the ranks, despite numerous requests; nevertheless, this later made the soldiers more attentive, in particular, even to day and night guards.

For some violations, Augustus could force a soldier to stand all day in front of the praetorian tent in one tunic and holding palisade stakes.

Opilius Macrinus, famous for his disciplinary cruelty, in addition to decimation and centesimation due to rebellions (even the word “centesimare” belonged to him), crucified his own careless soldiers, which from a military-legal point of view was nonsense.

Literature

English

• Birley, Eric. The Roman Army: Papers, 1929-1986
• Brunt, P. A. Italian Manpower, 225 B.C.-A. D. 14
• Campbell, Brian. The Emperor and the Roman Army, 31 B.C.-A.D. 235; The Roman Army: 31 B.C.-A.D. 337; Warfare and Society in Imperial Rome, 31 B.C. - A.D. 280
• Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War
• DeBlois, Lukas. Army and Society in the Late Roman Republic; The Roman army and politics in the first century B.C.
• Erdkamp, ​​P. Hunger and the Sword. Warfare and Food Supply in Roman Republican Wars (264-30 B.C.)
• Gabba, Emilio. Republican Rome. The Army and the Allies
• Gilliam, J. Frank. Roman Army Papers
• Gilliver, C. M. The Roman Art of War
• Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith. Roman Warfare
• Isaac, Benjamin. The Limits of Empire. The Roman Army in the East
• Keppie, Lawrence, The Making of the Roman Army
• Le Bohec, Yan. The Imperial Roman Army
• MacMullen, Ramsay. How Big was the Roman Army?
• Mattern, Susan P., Rome and the Enemy. Roman Imperial Strategy in the Principate
• Peddie, John. The Roman War Machine
• Webster, Graham. The Roman Imperial Army

Other

• Aigner, H. Die Soldaten als Machtfaktor in der ausgehenden römischen Republik
• Dabrowa, E. Rozwój i organizacja armii rzymskiej (do początku III wieku n.e.)