The main features of an absolute monarchy are enlightened absolutism. Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

§ 2. Ideology of “enlightened absolutism” The first years of the reign of Catherine II were marked by the development of a new official ideology, using a number of Enlightenment ideas to apology autocracy and serfdom. Mastering liberal phraseology and contacts with

The transition from feudalism to capitalism in many countries took place against the backdrop of the emergence of the ideology of the Enlightenment. In Russia, this period occurred in the 60s of the 18th century - the time of the reign of Catherine the Great.

Enlightened absolutism is monarchical rule based on the ideology of the Enlightenment. Its main ideas were the following: man is the highest value, his interests are above the state; people have equal rights regardless of class; society needs improvement, and science and legislation must play a major role in this. In light of all this, the idea of ​​a “philosopher on the throne” became popular.

Catherine's reign was characterized by holding events in the interests of the state itself and the ruling class (nobles). They contributed to the development of capitalism in the country, but did not take into account many of the realities of society at that time.

Already in the first days of her reign, Catherine made a number of trips around the country (Rostov, Yaroslavl, the Baltic provinces; she traveled along the Ladoga Canal, then along the Volga to Simbirsk). Then she realized that the culture of the people was too low and hastened to “patch up the sharp gaps in management” (Klyuchevsky).

Historians called Catherine’s enlightened absolutism the “golden age.” The Empress sought to ensure the development of life in Russian society in an evolutionary way, under the supervision of a “people-loving” monarch. However, she did not want to change the social structure: the empire flourished at the expense of labor and workers, and the throne rested on the nobility, which was the main stronghold of absolutism.

The empress’s idea of ​​what needs to be done for the prosperity of the state was based on ideas gleaned from the works of European enlighteners.

Catherine tried to neutralize the most unpleasant “legacies of past regimes” in the country. She restored and strengthened government agencies that were created under Peter the Great. The Senate was divided into six departments. The Chief Magistrate, the Berg College, and the Manufactory College were restored. The process of centralization continued with the bureaucratization of administration and the elimination of the hetmanate in Ukraine.

The empress's enlightened absolutism was based on her personal understanding of the problems that needed to be solved. In 1767, a Commission was convened to develop a new set of laws. In 1775, management reform was started. The number of provinces has increased. They were headed by governors, and groups from several provinces were headed by governors-general. The Treasury Chamber began to deal with industry, expenses and income, and the Order of Public Charity began to deal with hospitals and schools. The courts were separated from the administration.

Gradually, the entire system of governing the country became uniform, subordinate to governors, then to their governors, central boards and, finally, to the empress.

In 1779, a Decree on the free opening of industrial enterprises was signed and published. Merchants and artisans received certain benefits. At the same time, in 1785, the nobles were granted a “Charter of Complaint”, which consolidated their feudal privileges.

Thus, enlightened absolutism and the empress’s program turned out to be very contradictory. On the one hand, they were characterized by the proclamation of the advanced truths of enlightenment philosophy, on the other hand, by the preservation of autocracy, the rule of the nobility and serfdom.

In general, it had a positive impact on the development of the country: its territory grew, the population increased, and treasury revenues increased. However, the situation of the people remained disastrous. At this time there was a powerful movement headed by E.I. Pugachev. The pressing issues have not been fully resolved. The state remained autocratic and serf-based.

ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM IN EUROPE

Enlightened absolutism -- the policy of absolutism in a number of European countries in the 2nd half of the 18th century was expressed in the destruction from above and in the transformation of the most outdated feudal institutions (abolition of some class privileges, subordination of the church to the state, reforms - peasant, judicial, school education, softening censorship, etc.). Representatives of enlightened absolutism in Western Europe: Maria Theresa (1740-1780) and Joseph II in Austria (1780-1790), Frederick II in Prussia (1740-1786), Gustav III in Sweden (1771-1792) and Catherine II in Russia (1762-1796). What united them?

Firstly, the understanding that in order to preserve the basic foundations of the “old order”, society needs certain changes. All of the monarchs listed above can be called conservative reformers. The set of reforms carried out during this period was approximately the same in all countries: promotion of trade, development of education, limitation of the scope of activity of guild structures, an attempt to optimize finance and public administration, and, finally, very careful steps aimed at modernizing agrarian relations.

Secondly, a change in the elite’s views on the world, society itself, and the state. The entire hierarchy of values ​​that guided the enlightened monarchs and their entourage was transformed. Previously, the worldview of both the top and bottom of society was based on church dogmas. Based on them, they determined the norms of everyday life, relationships between various social groups, substantiated the principles of government, and outlined the tasks of the state in the international arena. Now they sought to find a rational explanation and justification for all aspects of society. Patronage of science and art became a sign of good manners.

Finally, the departure from theological imperatives prepared the way for a gradual transition to civil society. Of course, no one planned its creation. But objectively, all those reforms discussed above, all the shifts in the mentality of the elite, a powerful explosion of humanitarian knowledge predetermined the deepening of the crisis of the old society. As a result, the outwardly magnificent flowering of absolutism only camouflaged its numerous internal flaws.

Thirdly, the change in views on the essence of the state, its nature, entailed the acceleration of the process of formation of the concept of state interests of the leading countries of Europe, which began in the mid-17th century. This contributed to the strengthening of systemic principles in international relations, united individual European countries into a single complex, living according to its own common norms, and strengthened legal principles. In other words, enlightened absolutism gave impetus to the formation of such a phenomenon as European civilization.

Under enlightened absolutism alone the authors understand a policy that, using social demagoguery and the slogans of enlighteners, pursued the goal of preserving the old order. Other historians they tried to show how enlightened absolutism, while meeting the interests of the nobility, simultaneously contributed to bourgeois development. Still others approach the issue of enlightened absolutism from an academic position, seeing it as one of the stages in the evolution of an absolute monarchy.

Philosophical prerequisites for absolutism. XVIII century - the time of dominance of educational ideology. The French Voltaire, C. Montesquieu, D. Diderot, J.-J. Rousseau and the English enlighteners J. Locke and T. Hobbes formulated the main provisions of the enlightenment concept of social development:

T. Hobbes created the theory of the social contract, which consisted in the hypothesis of the emergence of the state as the executor of the social contract, designed to protect people in the process of aggressive competition. J.-J. Rousseau argued that in response to the state's commitment to protect the rights of citizens, the latter are obliged to promote the common good by subordinating their interests to general laws. He substantiated the superiority of the republican state system over the monarchical one, as providing a democratic mechanism of governance in the state.

C. Montesquieu formulated the principle of separation of powers and formulated the postulate that the goal of any form of state is to preserve freedom on the basis of law. The theory of the separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers, their independence from each other, could, according to the ideas of the Enlightenment, provide a perfect social order.

Diderot fought against the omnipotence of the church, considering the demands it made on a person not based on the arguments of reason and, therefore, not fair.

J. Locke was the first to identify three most important human rights: the right to life, the right to freedom, and the right to property (not possession, but the result of labor).

The cornerstone of all Enlightenment theories was the belief in the omnipotence of reason. Enlightenment advocates advocated the equality of all before the law, the right of everyone to appeal to higher authorities, the deprivation of the church of secular power, the inviolability of property, the humanization of criminal law, support for science and technology, freedom of the press, agrarian reform, and fair taxation.

Philosophers saw one of the ways to achieve freedom, equality and fraternity in the activities of enlightened monarchs - sages on the throne who, using their power, would help educate society and establish justice. The idea of ​​the state as the main instrument for achieving the public good dominated in the minds of people of that time. But the monarchs’ understanding of equality and freedom did not go further than consolidating the rights and privileges of each class within the framework of an autocratic monarchy.

Historical background of absolutism. In the second half of the 18th century, absolutism, which had established itself in Europe and gave unlimited power to monarchs, was already declining. In England, the death blow to absolutism was dealt by the revolution (1640-1660). There the king was no longer “by the grace of God,” but by the grace of parliament. In France, where the bourgeoisie, strengthened and possessing a developed self-awareness, did not want to be content with half-concessions to the feudal aristocracy, things were heading towards a bloody outcome. In most European countries, where the possibilities of absolutism had not yet been exhausted, a special policy was developed aimed at strengthening the dominance of the nobles in the conditions of the emergence of capitalism. In the second half of the 18th century, it was held in Austria, Prussia, Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Spain, Italy, and Portugal.

Enlightened absolutism is characterized by active activity of the autocratic state, aimed at legislative consolidation of serfdom, strengthening the privileges of the nobility, expanding the borders of the state, patronage of the development of industry and trade, brutal suppression of popular unrest, as well as a sharp contradiction between the liberal official ideology and the reactionary feudal-serf policy. Historical development of enlightened absolutism. In the countries listed above, the absolutist state, unable to prevent the development of the bourgeoisie, decided to make some concessions to it. It only tried to appear “enlightened”, while fundamentally remaining unchanged and still defending the interests of the nobility. And the bourgeoisie in these countries, even in the 18th century, was more interested in the feudal-absolutist state than it was in the bourgeoisie. Monarchs loved to talk about the “common good,” the “national benefit,” sometimes successfully creating the illusion that they served all their subjects equally. The result was a paradoxical thing: the ideas of the Enlightenment, hostile to absolutism, were used to justify it. Many sovereigns and their ministers were sincerely interested in them, especially in their youth. They really liked the idea of ​​a state headed by an enlightened monarch who consults with philosophers and transforms society on new, reasonable principles. In the 18th century, this idea was diligently spread by many educators, especially Voltaire, who spent a long time visiting Frederick II in Prussia. Objectively, this reflected the desire of the moderate-liberal part of the bourgeoisie to carry out bourgeois reforms without revolution, through reforms from above. This course of development, which preserved the dominant position of the nobility, suited the monarchs quite well. Among the enlighteners there were principled opponents of the absolutist regime, but they did not find support in those countries where the bourgeoisie was still too weak to dream of power. In addition, the practice of elevating people from other classes to the nobility and awarding titles bore fruit.

And yet, the most urgent transformations in the absolutist states were carried out: some class privileges were eliminated, for example, they began to levy taxes on the nobles (in Austria - under Maria Theresa, in Prussia - under Frederick II), peasant reforms were carried out, the most radical - - under Joseph II, who abolished serfdom in Austria. The church gradually became subordinate to the state, the latter appropriated its lands and closed the monastic orders. In 1759, the Marquis of Pombal, who headed the government of Portugal, achieved the expulsion of the Jesuits from the country and the confiscation of the enormous wealth of this order. In Spain and Portugal the number of monasteries was reduced, and secular education was begun. Gradually, religious tolerance was established in society. Frederick II, for example, loved to repeat: “Let everyone be saved in my own way,” meaning the salvation of the soul. A monstrous relic of the Middle Ages - torture - was eradicated from judicial practice. The “witch hunt” stopped. Rulers and their assistants, especially lawyers, used the arguments of the Enlightenment to justify feudal-absolutist legislation, which contradicted the bourgeois understanding of law. The same applies to the theory of the state. The practice of governing the country was very far from the ideals of the Enlightenment, although sovereigns often resorted to their philosophy to justify their undivided dominance. The theory of the social contract, invented by the Enlightenment, was perceived by the monarchs as an agreement according to which the people had to completely obey them. As soon as the main interests of the nobility were at stake, the ruler’s willingness to make concessions, no matter how he flirted with the enlighteners, immediately ended. Thus, many of the autocrats, although they approved of the Enlightenment theories of education, and sometimes even allowed them to be tested in practice, did not, however, dare to abolish the class school, which reflected the structure of society and the privileged position of the nobility in it. This, in particular, explains Frederick II’s hostile attitude towards Rousseau: “I patronize only such free thinkers who have decent manners and reasonable ideas.” The main supporters of enlightened absolutism were, along with the kings and their ministers, also part of the nobility, who considered it necessary, mainly for economic reasons, to weaken feudal dependence, and many bourgeois farmers. The revolution in France, which destroyed absolutism in the country and frightened the monarchs of all Europe, put an end to the policy of enlightened absolutism where it had not been stopped even earlier.

The essence of the policy of enlightened absolutism in Europe (using the example of Prussia, Austria, Spain):

PRUSSIA: 1. Streamlining the activities of financial and judicial authorities

• 2. Expansion of primary education
• 3. Increasing tolerance towards non-believers
• 4. Prohibition of landowners driving peasants off their plots
• 5. Carrying out a policy of mercantilism (protecting the national commodity producer, encouraging trade through the active construction of roads and canals)
• 6. Abolition of torture
• 7. Introduction of an equal court for all.

At the same time, such remnants of the absolute monarchy as censorship, a ban on leaving the country, and serfdom on privately owned lands have been preserved

AUSTRIA: 1. Limitation of the lord’s arbitrariness in relation to the peasant in court, “Joseph’s Lawyer”; limitation of the use of the death penalty

• 2. Introduction of secular lower and secondary education
• 3. Limitation of the privileges of the Catholic Church
• 4. Abolition of internal duties and the introduction of high external duties (policy of mercantilism)
• 5. Abolition of serfdom, provision of land to peasants

At the same time, recruitment has become more stringent, power is being centralized in the Habsburg Empire (control over the autonomies of Galicia and Hungary is constantly increasing), etc.

SWEDEN: 1. Law on Freedom of the Press

• 2. Freedom of religion
• 3. Abolition of class restrictions on holding public office

At the same time, in the last years of the reign, the centralization of power increased, in particular, the parliament (Rigsdag) was convened at the will of the king, and the advisory body under him, the State Council, was abolished.

Conclusion: So, by the end of the 18th century, the possibilities of absolutism for maintaining the foundations of the “old order” were noticeably narrowed. Living in the old way, without changing anything, became more and more difficult. To keep the situation under control, it was necessary to maintain a huge state apparatus, buy the loyalty of the aristocracy with the help of benefits, and increase spending on the army as the main guarantor of the country's security. But all this required more and more money. Only a dynamically developing economy could ensure their influx. However, the “old order,” with its cruel, petty regulation of all aspects of economic activity, numerous restrictions that constrained the entire socio-economic sphere, prevented the formation of a market economy, which alone is capable of providing a qualitative leap in the development of society.

Attempts by representatives of enlightened absolutism to find a solution to the accumulated problems through individual reforms also did not bring the desired result. The cruel canons on which medieval society was based were difficult to reform: everything in it was extremely interconnected and interdependent, and any attempt to somehow modify any of the supporting structures immediately noticeably undermined the stability of the entire system. Because of this, the reforms of the enlightened monarchs, while removing the most stringent and outdated restrictions, somewhat expanding the opportunities for social progress, at the same time undermined the foundations of the world order into which they tried to breathe new life. Thus, this development option, although not as obvious as the openly protective one, has also largely exhausted its possibilities.

The Enlightenment politicized public consciousness and contributed to the growth of revolutionary sentiments in society. A clear indication of the brewing social crisis was the great French Revolution, the main reason for which was widespread dissatisfaction among sections of the population with the dominant feudal-absolutist system and its inconsistency with the tasks of the economic, social and political development of the country.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..3

Enlightened absolutism on the pages

Russian history……………………………………………………..5

The essence, concept and origin of enlightened absolutism...5

Enlightened absolutism in the Russian Empire……………..8

“Enlightened absolutism” of Catherine II……………………………12

1. The reign of Catherine II…………………………………..12

   Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II………………..17

Reforms carried out by Catherine II during the period

enlightened absolutism……………………………………………………….27

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...34

List of references………………………………………………………..36

Introduction.

The reign of Catherine II is called the era of enlightened absolutism in Russia. Catherine managed to enlighten her subjects and bring Russian culture closer to Western culture. She also made significant changes in the mechanisms of government. Philosophers saw one of the ways to achieve freedom, equality and fraternity in the activities of enlightened monarchs - sages on the throne who, using their power, would help educate society and establish justice. The idea of ​​the state as the main instrument for achieving the public good dominated in the minds of people of that time. The theory of the separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers, their independence from each other, could, according to the ideas of the Enlightenment, provide a perfect social order.

The meaning of enlightened absolutism was the policy of following the ideas of the Enlightenment, expressed in carrying out reforms that destroyed some of the most odious feudal institutions (and sometimes took a step towards bourgeois development). The idea of ​​a state with an enlightened monarch capable of transforming social life on new, reasonable principles became widespread in the 18th century. The monarchs themselves, in the conditions of the decay of feudalism, the maturation of the capitalist system, and the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment, were forced to take the path of reform.

The main goal of the reign of Catherine II was to strengthen the existing system through legislative measures and, ultimately, strengthen state power.

Purpose This course work is to explore the prerequisites and features of the emergence and development of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II.

Based on the goal, we have identified a number of tasks :

Define the essence and concept of enlightened absolutism;

Analyze the emergence of enlightened absolutism;

Study the development of enlightened absolutism in the Russian Empire;

Study enlightened absolutism during the reign of Catherine II;

Identify the reforms carried out by Catherine II during the period of enlightened absolutism.

In this course work, the textbooks of Vilensky B.V., Golovatenko A., Ezhov M.V., Zuev M.N., Titov Yu.P., Chistyakov O.I., Isaev I.A. were used. “Lectures on the history of state and law of Russia”, “History of Russia: controversial issues”, “History of public administration of Russia. IX – early XX century”, “History of Russia from antiquity to the present day”, “History of state and law of Russia”, which contributed to the study of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II and the period of her reign. We would also use the textbooks of A. Kamensky, O. A. Omelchenko, N. I. Pavlenko, M. M. Safonov. “Problems of reforms in Russian government policy at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries”, “Catherine the Great”, “The “Legitimate Monarchy” of Catherine II: Enlightened absolutism in Russia.”, “The Russian Empire in the 18th century”, the role of which lies in the need for the concept the essence of enlightened absolutism in the Russian Empire.

Research methods used in course work: study of specialized literature on the chosen topic; analysis of the period of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II.

Enlightened absolutism on the pages of Russian history.

1. Essence, concept and origin of enlightened absolutism.

The era of enlightened absolutism in Russia coincides with the reign of Catherine II. This idea of ​​a state with an enlightened monarch is called a capable transformation of social life on new, reasonable principles, which became widespread in the 18th century. French enlighteners M.F. Voltaire, S.L. Montesquieu, D. Diderot, J.J. Rousseau formulated the main provisions of the educational concept of social development. Philosophers saw one of the ways to achieve freedom, equality and fraternity in the activities of enlightened monarchs - sages on the throne who, using their power, would help educate society and establish justice. The idea of ​​the state as the main instrument for achieving the public good dominated in the minds of people of that time. Therefore, the theory of separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers, their independence from each other, could, according to the ideas of the Enlightenment, provide a perfect social order.

From this it turns out that enlightened absolutism - this is a policy pursued in the second half of the 18th century by a number of monarchical countries in Europe and aimed at eliminating the remnants of the medieval system in favor of capitalist relations.

The era of enlightened absolutism was characterized by a certain ideology, in which the following characteristic features stand out:

the idea of ​​equality of all people, the state is created as a result of a social contract, the consequence of which is the mutual obligations of the monarch and subjects;

it is the state that is the main means of creating a society of general prosperity;

all reforms based on fair laws must come from above, from the state, whose activities are based on the principle: “Everything for the people, and nothing through the people”;

education is one of the most important functions of the state and at the same time a way of educating its subjects into conscious citizens;

recognition of freedom of speech, thought, self-expression.

The theory of “enlightened absolutism”, the founder of which is Thomas Hobbes, is completely imbued with the rationalistic philosophy of the age of “enlightenment”. Its essence lies in the idea of ​​a secular state, in the desire of absolutism to place central power above all else. Until the 18th century, the state idea, the exponent of which was absolutism, was understood in a narrowly practical way: the concept of the state was reduced to the totality of the rights of state power. Holding firmly to the views developed by tradition, enlightened absolutism introduced at the same time a new understanding of the state, which already imposes responsibilities on the state power, which enjoys rights. The consequence of this view, which developed under the influence of the theory of the contractual origin of the state, was the theoretical limitation of absolute power, which caused a whole series of reforms in European countries, where, along with the desire for “state benefit,” concerns about the general welfare were put forward. “Enlightenment” literature of the 18th century, which set itself the task of a complete critique of the old order, found ardent support in absolutism: the aspirations of philosophers and politicians agree that reform should be carried out by the state and in the interests of the state. Therefore, a characteristic feature of enlightened absolutism is the union of monarchs and philosophers who wanted to subordinate the state to pure reason.

As mentioned earlier, the 18th century manifested itself as a period of dominance of Enlightenment ideology. The first to formulate the main provisions of the educational concept were French scientists. In their opinion, the theory of separation of legislative, judicial and executive powers and their independence from each other could ensure a perfect social order.

In the early stages of the formation of educational ideology, individual representatives of this movement (Fenelon, Marmontel, Voltaire, etc.) took seriously the possibility of a monarchy based on the principles of reason and justice, where government policies would be determined by concern for the common good, ensuring personal freedom and civil equality .

Subsequently, the prospect of the reality of the implementation of the doctrine was reinforced in the eyes of thinkers by specific attempts of some European monarchs of the 18th century - Frederick II in Prussia, Joseph II in Austria, Gustav III in Sweden. The rulers began to focus their policies on individual postulates of the concept put forward by the Enlightenment. This policy was expressed in the implementation of reforms that destroyed some of the most outdated feudal institutions (and sometimes took a step towards bourgeois development).

Reforms in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were carried out in Prussia - in the first years of the reign of Frederick II, in the Austrian monarchy - partly already under Maria Theresa and especially under Joseph II, in Spain - under Charles III, in Portugal - under Minister S. Pombal, in Denmark - under the ministers J. H. E. Bernstorff, I. F. Struens, under the regent Prince Frederick, in Sweden - under King Gustav III, in Russia - under Catherine II (in the 60s of the 18th century).

Although objectively some reforms of enlightened absolutism contributed to the development of the capitalist structure, feudal-despotic features prevailed in the practical activities of the “enlightened sovereigns”.

The incompatibility of the principles of the Enlightenment with the absolutist regime was most clearly manifested in Prussia under Frederick II. In those cases when the feudal-absolutist state undertook reforms that infringed on the nobility, especially when the reforms already acquired a distinctly bourgeois character (for example, the reforms of A.R.J. Turgot in 1774-76 in France), they provoked strong opposition from feudal circles and ultimately were not implemented.

In Russia, the policy of enlightened absolutism, as well as in a number of other European countries, consisted of using the provisions of enlightenment ideology to strengthen the serfdom system in the conditions of its beginning to decompose. Such a policy could not be carried out for a long time. After the French Revolution, a course was set for intensifying domestic and international reaction, which meant the end of the period of enlightened absolutism.

Catherine II tried to implement theoretical principles in her policy. Naturally, she could not go against the nobility, against serfdom. She sought to build a legitimate autocratic monarchy, to update it taking into account new historical realities, and not to introduce a constitutional democratic system, as the Enlightenment wanted. The monarchs' understanding of equality and freedom did not go further than consolidating the rights and privileges of each class within the framework of an autocratic monarchy.

In general, the policy of enlightened absolutism was successful only in those countries where the bourgeoisie had reached a relatively weak degree of development. But even there, the period of enlightened absolutism turned out to be very short-lived: in the conditions of the revolutionary breakdown of the feudal-absolutist system carried out by the Great French Revolution, European monarchs put an end to “liberal” initiatives in the spirit of enlightened absolutism, which was replaced almost everywhere by a policy of open feudal reaction.

Enlightened absolutism in the Russian Empire.

The uniqueness of the historical situation that developed in Russia throughout the 18th century turned it into a country where the concept of “enlightened absolutism” seemed to find its real embodiment.

The most serious contribution to the development of absolutism as a system was made by Peter I. In 1721, the Senate awarded him the title of emperor, and Russia began to be called an empire. Peter concentrated all power in his hands, removing from participation in state affairs both the Patriarch (the head of the Russian Orthodox Church) and the Boyar Duma, which could, one way or another, oppose the tsar’s autocracy. During his reign, absolute monarchy first received legislative registration. In the Military Regulations of 1716, one of the articles (from lat. articulus - “article”) read: “His Majesty is an autocratic monarch who should not give an answer to anyone in the world about his affairs, but he has the power and authority to rule his own states and lands, like a Christian sovereign, according to his will and goodness.” And in the Spiritual Regulations of 1721 for the Church it was written: “The All-Russian Emperor is an autocratic and unlimited monarch. God himself commands to obey his supreme authority not only out of fear, but also out of conscience.”

Peter the Great paid a lot of attention to public opinion. By the highest order, translations of foreign books were published and works of domestic thinkers were compiled on the expediency and laws of an unlimited monarchy, strengthening the empire, and the fight against dissent. The treatise “The Truth of the Will of the Monarchs,” written by Feofan Prokopovich, was printed in tens of thousands of copies and distributed among the literate population. Pravda argued that absolute supreme power was granted to the emperor from above for the benefit of his subjects and the fatherland, and all his actions were justified, except for “harmful ones.”

An absolute monarchy could not do without strengthening the economic power of the country. The development of the state could not be imagined without industrial progress, the construction of manufactories, and the development of mining. Peter encouraged entrepreneurship and trade, those branches of agriculture that provided raw materials for industry, the army and the navy.

The undoubted political successes of Russia during the Northern War, the active reform activities of Peter I and especially his concerns for the development of education and science in the country served as a compelling reason for this. Peter I himself cared least of all about earning the laurels of an “enlightened monarch.” However, the example he set of a “worker on the throne,” and most importantly, the results of his transformations, determined for several decades the standard by which public opinion of the 18th century measured the demands placed on crowned rulers.

As a result of the transformations, powerful industrial production, a strong army and navy were created, which allowed Russia to gain access to the sea, overcome isolation, reduce the gap with the advanced countries of Europe and become a great power in the world. However, forced modernization and borrowing of technology were carried out due to a sharp increase in archaic forms of exploitation of the people, who paid an extremely high price for the positive results of the reforms. Reforms of the political system gave new strength to the serving despotic state. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice. Reforms in the field of culture and everyday life, on the one hand, created conditions for the development of science, education, literature, etc. But on the other hand, the mechanical and forced transfer of many European cultural and everyday stereotypes hindered the full development of a culture based on national traditions. The main thing was that the nobility, perceiving the values ​​of European culture, sharply isolated itself from the national tradition, and its guardian - the Russian people, whose attachment to traditional values ​​and institutions grew as the country modernized.

The paradox of Peter's reform boiled down to the fact that the Westernization of Russia, which was of a violent nature, strengthened the foundations of Russian civilization - autocracy and serfdom, on the one hand, brought to life the forces that carried out modernization, and on the other, provoked an anti-modernization and anti-Western reaction from supporters of traditionalism and national identity .

The successors of Peter I on the Russian throne turned out to be, for the most part, unworthy of continuing his policies. But with the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, appeals to the concept of “enlightened absolutism” again found their relevance in Russian conditions. At the same time, the empress, unlike the reformer tsar, openly declares her adherence to the latest theories of the Enlightenment.

Catherine's Enlightened AbsolutismII.

1. Catherine's reignII.

The breakdown of national foundations and traditions led, after the death of Peter I, to a period of acute political crisis, which went down in history as the “era of palace coups,” as a result of which six monarchs were replaced in 37 years (1725-1762). A number of historians call the second quarter - mid-18th century. as the era of “temporaries”, in which favorites played a huge role. Some historians define the essence of the period as the struggle of the Russian nobility against the dominance of foreigners.

Catherine II, who took the throne as a result of a palace coup and ruled for 34 years (1762-1796), tried to adapt to the conditions of the split in Russian society. She was a well-educated, energetic and at the same time ambitious and hypocritical empress. She used Russian traditional protective conservatism and European liberalism in her own way.

The policy of Empress Catherine II brought new trends for Russia, which carried out state reforms under the slogan of “enlightened absolutism.” The solemn manifesto of July 6, 1762 declared: “Autocracy, unbridled by good and philanthropic qualities in a sovereign who rules autocratically, is an evil that is directly the cause of many harmful consequences.” Smart and educated, Catherine knew how to present herself as an enlightened, even charming monarch, but she ruled with a firm hand, mercilessly punishing her enemies. Promising her subjects “motherly admonition and care,” the new empress did not think about limiting her power and did not tolerate criticism of herself, being jealous of the successes in public opinion even of people devoted to her. She single-handedly headed the central government apparatus and only occasionally convened a council of major dignitaries chosen by her.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine II was faced with the desire of the noble nobility to limit royal power in their favor. Therefore, many “All-Russian autocrats” needed a permanent council consisting of people close to them. Catherine II in 1768 again organized the Imperial Council as an advisory body under the Empress to discuss the most important laws and government events. In connection with the creation of the Imperial Council, the importance of the Senate fell.

Catherine II carried out her domestic policy directly through the prosecutor general, presidents of the boards and governors general. The growing influence of the Imperial Council and at the same time the diminishing role of the Senate were two sides of the process of strengthening the autocracy, developing the bureaucracy and strengthening the centralization of the state apparatus, begun by Peter I.

Catherine's foreign policy at that time was focused mainly on gaining access to the Black Sea. Establishment on the Black Sea coast would finally provide the country with the opportunity to actively engage in trade with the countries of the East. However, Russia's aspirations did not suit France and Turkey. The first wanted to concentrate all eastern trade in its hands. The second saw a serious danger for itself in Russia’s advance to the south. England did not stand aside either, which would be prevented from achieving its own interests in the Balkans by the strengthening of Russia in the Black Sea region. All this ultimately led to two long, bloody wars between Russia and Turkey (1768–1774, 1787–1791), from which Russia emerged victorious.

The first war ended with the signing of peace in the summer of 1774 in the village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi on the Danube, and the second ended in the winter of 1791 with the conclusion of the Treaty of Iasi. Thanks to the victories won by the ground forces and navy, the Russian Empire annexed the entire Northern Black Sea region to its own territories. The Crimean Khanate, which received political independence from Turkey in 1774, became part of Russia in 1783. Russian consulates were opened in countries subject to the Ottoman Empire, and the Turkish government guaranteed freedom to practice the Christian religion in its possessions. But the main thing is that Russia gained access to the Black Sea and got rid of the constant threat of attack by the Crimeans, behind whom Turkey stood. Now it was possible to develop fertile steppe chernozems, which was a huge benefit for Russia economically.

In connection with all this, Catherine II saw the main task of her reign in strengthening her position as “mother of the fatherland,” smoothing out social contradictions, and preventing anti-feudal protests caused by the aggravation of the class struggle. It determined the main directions of domestic policy in the conditions of deep social contradictions of the beginning decomposition of the feudal-serf system.

Its content, on the one hand, was maneuvering with the help of promises, preparing and carrying out some reforms, using the popular ideas of the French enlighteners of that time - Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu, creating the appearance of unity of thinkers and monarchs - “the union of philosophers and sovereigns”, and on the other - a sharp increase in serfdom and expansion of noble privileges. The totality of the elements of this policy was called “enlightened absolutism”.

The very dawn of “enlightened absolutism” in Russia dates back to the 60s of the 18th century. Despite the liberal phrases and demagogic techniques of the autocrats, the social nature of the autocracy under “enlightened absolutism” remained noble. As in many countries of that time - in Austria, Prussia and others - “enlightened absolutism” in Russia was a special form of autocratic policy, a characteristic feature of which was some adaptation of the policy of the noble state to the requirements of developing capitalism.

“Enlightened absolutism” was also generated by the aggravation of social contradictions and, first of all, by the struggle of the peasants. The essence of the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was not only the suppression of peasant movements, but partly in the desire to prevent their occurrence. “Enlightened absolutism” also carried out events aimed at preserving and expanding the privileges of the nobility and helping them adapt to developing capitalist relations.

The second period of the reign of Catherine II is characterized by the fact that ostentatious liberalism and educational ideas are discarded, Russian educators are persecuted, almost unlimited noble privileges are proclaimed, and serfdom increases even more. The process of deepening socio-economic contradictions and the decomposition of the feudal-serf system continues to develop. Therefore, the strengthening of the reactionary course, especially in connection with the Great French Revolution, constitutes the content of the domestic policy of this period of the reign of Catherine II.

Hence it turns out that in Russia the policy of enlightened absolutism was generated by: the desire of the supreme power to bring the existing management system, the level of socio-economic and cultural development in accordance with the spirit of the times; the severity of social contradictions, the need to take measures that would soften the discontent of the lower classes; claims to a leading role in the system of international relations. Where do the following objectives of the educational policy that the Russian absolute monarchy set for itself follow:

strengthening the autocracy through modernization and improvement of the management system, eliminating its most archaic elements;

expansion of the rights and freedoms of the Russian nobility in order to transform it into a truly privileged and enlightened class, capable of serving the interests of the state and the entire society not out of fear, but out of conscience;

carrying out measures aimed, on the one hand, at strengthening the power of landowners over their peasants, and on the other, designed to alleviate social tensions;

creating conditions for the economic development of the country, adopting laws that promote entrepreneurship (policy of economic liberalism).

dissemination of knowledge, development of European forms of culture and education in the country;

Thus, the history of the Russian absolutist state of the second half of the 18th century can be divided into two periods: I - before the peasant war of 1773 - 1775; This period is usually called the period of “enlightened absolutism” and the second period is an open noble reaction, especially intensified from 1789 to 1790 in connection with the revolution in France.

But still, educational ideas aroused the empress’s desire to deal with the most necessary thing for the establishment of a new Russia - the problem of legislation. After the Council Code of 1649, the empire did not have a code of laws that met the political conditions of the 18th century. Catherine spent two years writing the “Order” to the commission to draft a new Code. 22 chapters of the document are borrowings or retelling of basic ideas from the works of encyclopedists on monarchical power, the role of laws, crimes and punishments, economics, education, inheritance law and court. From the standpoint of enlightened absolutism, she examined the problems of crime and punishment; Having followed Elizaveta Petrovna against torture and the death penalty, Catherine essentially put an end to the shameful “word and deed.”

The commission was unable to solve the task before it: the country never received new state legislation. 19-year-old student Leo Tolstoy, studying the “Order”, made a harsh conclusion: “This Order brought more glory to Catherine than benefit to Russia.” And, nevertheless, the result of the empress’s work on this document was the provincial reform of 1775, charters granted to the nobility and cities of the Russian Empire in 1785. In the 70s. Merchants and entrepreneurs received certain benefits and privileges. In the spirit of “enlightened absolutism”, problems of the country’s cultural development were solved. Educational reform, permission to publish magazines, the creation of a network of educational institutions for nobles, townspeople, merchant children, orphans and the poor, the beginning of women's education, the founding of the Free Economic Society (1765) injected a fresh stream of social life. However, the French Revolution, as well as the activities of Russian educators and Freemasons, frightened the government. In the late 80s - early 90s. the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was over.

Enlightened absolutism- a policy pursued in the second half of the 18th century by a number of monarchical countries in Europe and aimed at eliminating the remnants of the medieval feudal system in favor of market relations.

Chronology

Foundations of enlightened absolutism

The theory of “enlightened absolutism”, the founder of which is Thomas Hobbes, is completely imbued with the rationalistic philosophy of the age of “enlightenment”. Its essence lies in the idea of ​​a secular state, in the desire of absolutism to place central power above all else. Until the 18th century, the state idea, the exponent of which was absolutism, was understood in a narrowly practical way: the concept of the state was reduced to the totality of the rights of state power. Holding firmly to the views developed by tradition, enlightened absolutism introduced at the same time a new understanding of the state, which already imposes responsibilities on the state power that enjoys rights. The consequence of this view, which developed under the influence of the theory of the contractual origin of the state, was the theoretical limitation of absolute power, which caused a whole series of reforms in European countries, where, along with the desire for “state benefit,” concerns about the general welfare were put forward.

In literature, “enlightened absolutism” was greeted with enthusiasm. The most striking example of enlightened absolutism is the political worldview of Voltaire; the school of physiocrats, led by Quesnay, Mercier de la Rivière and Turgot, held the same point of view. “Enlightenment” literature of the 18th century not only set the task of criticizing the old order: the aspirations of philosophers and politicians of that time agreed that the reform should be carried out by the state and in the interests of the state. Therefore, a characteristic feature of enlightened absolutism is the union of monarchs and philosophers who wanted to subordinate the state to pure reason.

Countries

Enlightened absolutism covered all the countries of Europe, except England, Poland and France: England had already achieved what enlightened absolutism was striving for, in Poland there was no royal absolutism and the gentry dominated, and Louis XV and Louis XVI, who reigned in France, were not able to take over themselves as initiators of the reform, as a result of which the previous system was destroyed by the revolution.

Representatives of enlightened absolutism

The central figures of this era were Frederick II the Great (1740 to 1786) and Joseph II of Austria (1780 to 1790). Other representatives of enlightened absolutism:

• in Spain - Minister of Aranda under Charles III (1759-1788)
• in Portugal - Pombal (1760-1777) under José I
• in Naples - Tanucci's minister under Charles III and Ferdinand IV
• in Tuscany - Leopold I (1765-1790)
• in Denmark - Christian VII (1766-1808) with minister Struensee (1769-1772)
• in Sweden - Gustav III (1771-1792)
• in Baden - Karl Friedrich
• in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Stanislav Poniatowski (1764-1795)
• in Russia - Catherine II

The activities of all these reformers were largely an imitation of the transformations of Frederick II and Joseph II, who embodied two directions that complement each other and fully characterize enlightened absolutism. Frederick was a conservative and in many ways only continued the old policy of the Hohenzollern dynasty, which he wanted to illuminate with the philosophical ideas of the century. Joseph II, more of a theorist, a “revolutionary on the throne,” broke with the policies of his predecessors and made a bold attempt to radically transform the entire political system of Austria in the spirit of the philosophy of the 18th century. In his activities, as well as in the activities of Frederick II, there are many contradictions that the new state idea introduced into the traditional policy of absolutism. The nature of the transformations of enlightened absolutism was the same in all countries, changing only depending on local conditions; but it differed significantly in Protestant countries (Prussia) and Catholic countries (Austria).

Not in all countries the initiative for reform belonged to the kings. In Portugal, Spain and Naples, ministers acted as enlightened despots, and the same thing happened in Denmark during the time of Struensee.

Reforms of enlightened absolutism

All reforms of enlightened absolutism, which sought to destroy church-feudal relations, were carried out not only for reasons of state, but also contributed to the emancipation of the individual. However, enlightened absolute monarchs avoided one of the major shortcomings of state life in the 18th century. - imperfection of the legislative activity of the state and have not developed the correct order of legislation. Everything depended on the absolute monarch or his minister. Reforms covered the area of ​​administration, finance, court, intellectual life, church, and finally - the area of ​​class relations and peasant life.

In the field of administration, enlightened absolutism sought to bureaucratic centralization, to crowd out social forces by bureaucrats and to suppress the interests of the nobility; it was hostile to popular representation and tried to destroy local particularism. Joseph II violated the constitutions of the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary, Frederick II deprived the Silesian zemstvo officials of their right to vote taxes in 1741.

The economic activity of enlightened absolutism stemmed from the sympathy of enlightened absolute rulers for mercantilism, which placed above all trade and industry, which were under the tutelage of the state. In an effort to replenish state revenues and retain gold and silver in the country, enlightened absolutism patronized the development of industry, protected and improved agriculture at the same time, and paid special attention to the distribution of taxes and the streamlining of government spending.

Enlightened absolutism rendered a tremendous service to the judicial system and legislation. “One law for all” - this is the principle that guided enlightened absolutism. Torture was abolished in the criminal process, the death penalty was limited and the administration of justice was improved. An example of judicial reform was Prussia under Frederick II, who transformed the judicial system and legal proceedings and established a clear order instead of arbitrariness. The goal of enlightened absolutism was not only to separate the court from the executive branch and ensure the independence of judges, but also to compose a code of laws that was simple, clear and concise. Samuel von Coczei, von Karmer and Suarez in Prussia undertook the compilation of a general code (Allgemeines Landrecht), which clearly reflected the influence of 18th-century philosophy. In Austria, already under Maria Theresa, the judiciary was separated from the administration. Joseph II worked very energetically to compile a code of laws and issued several private charters. The code of laws published in Portugal by Pombal attracted the attention of the then scientific world. These reforms were imbued with humanity, respect for the human person and a sense of justice.

Serious measures were also taken to spread education. The mere admiration of kings for philosophers gave the press more freedom. On the other hand, the monarchs were indifferent to the press, since public opinion was forgotten. But in general, the era of enlightened absolutism is characterized by greater freedom of the press, especially where political issues were not addressed. Censorship restrictions were limited (in Austria - the censorship statute of Joseph II in 1781), but they remained particularly strict in relation to the Catholic clergy.

Enlightened absolutism represents an era of strong antagonism between spiritual and secular power. Together with the “enlightenment,” absolutism had a negative attitude towards the traditions of Catholicism, defending the rights of the secular state from clerical tutelage and seeing a dangerous enemy in the Roman curia and clergy. The fight against Catholicism (in Catholic countries) was stubborn and often brutal. The power of the church was especially strong in Portugal, Spain, and Naples, which launched a campaign against the claims of medieval Catholicism. Papal bulls were stripped of their legal significance unless they were approved by the king, the clergy was subordinated to secular courts, inquisitorial courts were closed, many monasteries were destroyed, and their estates were transferred to the treasury, the clergy were subject to taxes, etc. In Portugal, Pombal set an example of the expulsion of the Jesuits, whose order is being attacked from everywhere. In 1759, the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, in 1764 - from France, then, in 1767-68, from Spain, Naples, Parma, until in 1773 the order was completely destroyed. Church reforms were taken to the extreme by Joseph II, who not only wanted to limit papal influence in Austria, weaken the power of the clergy, subordinating it to secular power, but even intervened in the ritual side of the faith, which aroused a lot of church parishioners against himself.

In the field of class relations in general and the peasant question in particular, enlightened absolutism also had a significant influence. And here, in the name of state benefit, the rulers fought against the remnants of feudalism, tried to reduce aristocratic privileges and limit the rights of the nobles and clergy. Pombal acted very sharply in Portugal, constraining the nobility. In Naples, the courts of the nobility were deprived of their power by the fact that their decisions could be reviewed by appeal in the royal court. In Sweden and Denmark, Gustav III and Struensee oppressed the nobility and armed them against themselves. In Austria, Joseph II caused strong opposition from the clergy and nobility because he wanted to destroy the tax privileges of the nobles and introduced a land tax.

In the same era, the peasant question was brought to the forefront for the first time. This was greatly facilitated by the physiocrats, who in their political views were on the side of enlightened absolutism, and many figures of enlightened absolutism were supporters of the physiocrats. Condemning the feudal rights that weighed down on landowners, literature of the 18th century. demanded the abolition of slavery and the end of serfdom. As a result, in the era of enlightened absolutism, attention was paid to the position of the rural masses, on which the enrichment of the treasury depends, and along with the patronage of the manufacturing industry, enlightened absolutism also patronizes peasant labor. In Prussia, Frederick II was the least likely of all the rulers to submit to physiocracy, but even here attention was paid to improving the life of the peasants. In Austria, the peasant question was brought forward by Joseph II, who formally abolished serfdom. The same thing happened in Savoy under Charles Emmanuel III.

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This mark is set October 31, 2014.