In which year, the collapse of the British Empire occurred. Empire British

Chapter The fourth end of the empire comes from the old world, devils his dust from our feet, we do not need a malicious idol, wept to us royal

In the service of the British Empire, on June 11, 1727, Georg Augustus replaced his father in the English throne and became King Georg II. He was born in Hannover in 1683 and, together with his father, moved to England in 1714, where the title of Prince Wales was immediately granted. His residence

Despite the persistent counteraction of the metropolis, in the countries of the British Empire (especially in migrant colonies and India), the industry developed, the national bourgeoisie and the proletariat, which became more seriously serious in political life. A large influence on the development of the national liberation movement in the British Empire was provided by the Russian revolution 1905-07. The Indian National Congress in 1906 put forward the requirement of self-government for India. However, the British authorities severely suppressed anti-colonial speeches.

In the first decades of the 20th century, Dominions were formed by Australian Union (1901), New Zealand (1907), South Africa Union (1910), Newfoundland (1917). Dominion governments began to be brought to discuss the issues of foreign policy and defense of the British Empire at Imperial Conferences. Dominion capitalists along with English capitalists participated in the exploitation of the colonial part of the British Empire.

In the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Of particular importance was the Anglo-German imperialist contradiction (including their colonial and marine rivalry), who played the main role in the emergence of the 1st World War 1914-18. The introduction of Great Britain to the war automatically led to participation in it and dominion. The domination of Great Britain actually spread to Egypt (pl. 995 thousand kM 2, the population is over 11 million people), Nepal (area of \u200b\u200b140 thousand km 2, the population of about 5 million people), Afghanistan (area 650 thousand km 2, the population is about 6 million people) and on the rejected from China Sianggan (Hong Kong) with a population of 457 thousand people. And Weihawai with a population of 147 thousand people.

The World War I violated the established economic ties in the British Empire. This contributed to the accelerated economic development of the dominion. The United Kingdom was forced to recognize their rights to conduct an independent foreign policy. The first performance of Dominion and India on the world stage was their participation in the signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty (1919). As independent members of the Dominion entered the League of Nations.

As a result of the 1st World War, the British Empire has been expanded. The UK and Dominion imperialists captured a number of possessions from their rivals. The British Empire includes the submanent Territories of Great Britain (Iraq, Palestine, Transortion, Tanganic, a part of Togo and Cameroon), the South African Union (South-West Africa), the Australian Union (part of the New Guinea and the adjacent Islands of Oceania), New Zealand (Western Islands Samoa). English Imperialism has expanded its position in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Middle and Middle East. Many states of this area formally not part of the British Empire (for example, the state of the Arabian Peninsula), in fact they were in the colonents of the UK.

Under the influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution, a powerful national liberation movement began in colonial and affiliates. The crisis of the British Empire unfolded, which became a manifestation of the general crisis of capitalism. In 1918-22, 1928-33, mass colonial performances occurred in India. The struggle of the Afghan people forced the United Kingdom in 1919 to recognize the independence of Afghanistan. In 1921, after a stubborn armed struggle, Ireland's Dominion Statute was achieved (without the northern part - Olster, which remained as part of the UK); In 1949, Ireland was proclaimed by an independent republic. In 1922, the United Kingdom formally recognized Egypt's independence. In 1930, an English mandate over Iraq was stopped. However, Egypt and Iraq were imposed by the Babel "Union Contracts", in fact, preserved English dominance.

There was a further strengthening of the political independence of the dominion. The Imperial Conference of 1926 and the so-called Westminster Statute of 1931 officially recognized their full independence in foreign and domestic politics. But in economically, the dominion (except Canada, which became more and more dependent on the United States), significantly remained agro-raw materials of the metropolis. The countries of the British Empire (except Canada) entered the sterling block created by Great Britain in 1931. In 1932, Ottawa agreements were concluded, which established the system of imperial preferences (preferred duties during trade between countries and territories of the British Empire). This testified to the presence of still durable ties between the metropolis and the dominiones. Despite the recognition of the independence of the dominion, the metropolis mainly still retained control over their foreign policy relations. Dominions practically did not have direct diplomatic ties with foreign states. At the end of 1933, Newfoundland, whose economy as a result of the Ukrainian and American monopolies, was on the verge of collapse, was deprived of the status of Dominion and moved under the control of the English governor. The global economic crisis of 1929-33. Significantly aggravated contradictions inside the British Empire. The countries of the British Empire penetrated the American, Japanese and German capital. However, English capital retained a dominant position in the empire. In 1938, about 55% of the total amount of English investments abroad accounted for the countries of the British Empire (1945 million pp. From 3545 million f. Art.). The United Kingdom has occupied the main place in their foreign trade.

All countries British Empires were covered by a unified system of "imperial defense", the components of which were military bases in strategically important points (Gibraltar, Malta, Suez, Aden, Singapore, etc.). English imperialism used the base for the struggle for the expansion of its influence in Asia and Africa, against the national liberation movement of oppressed peoples.

At the very beginning of the 2nd World War, 1939-45. Centrifugal trends intensified in the British Empire. If Canada, Australia, New Zealand and UAS entered the war on the side of the metropolis, then Ireland (Eyre) announced its neutrality. During the war years, which revealed the weakness of English imperialism, the crisis of the British Empire sharply aggravated. As a result of a number of heavy lesions incurred in the war with Japan, the positions of Great Britain were undermined in Southeast Asia. In the countries of the British Empire, a wide anticolonial movement unfolded.

The results of the 2nd World War, which ended with the full defeat of the block of fascist states, the formation of the global socialist system and the overall weakening of the positions of imperialism created exclusively favorable conditions for the struggle of the colonial peoples for their liberation and to protect the acquired independence. The process of decaying the colonial system of imperialism unfolded, part of which was the collapse of the English colonial empire. In 1946, the independence of transitionan was proclaimed. Under the pressure of the powerful anti-imperialist struggle, the United Kingdom was forced to provide India's independence (1947); At the same time, the country was divided into a religious basis for India (Dominion from 1947, Republic from 1950) and Pakistan (Dominion from 1947, Republic from 1956). The independent development path also stood up Birma and Ceylon (1948). In 1947, the UN General Assembly decided to liquidate (from May 15, 1948) of the British mandate to Palestine and on the creation of two independent states (Arab and Jewish) on its territory. Trying to stop the struggle of peoples for independence, the British imperialists led colonial wars in Malay, Kenya, in Cyprus, in Aden, used armed violence in other colonies.

However, all attempts to preserve the colonial empire failed. The overwhelming majority of the peoples of the colonial part of the British Empire achieved political independence. If in 1945 the population of the British colonies was about 432 million people, by 1970 - about 10 million from English colonial domination were released: in 1956 - Sudan; In 1957 - Ghana (the former British Colony of the Golden Coast and the former British Powered territory of Togo), Malaya (in 1963, together with the former British colonies Singapore, Sarawak and Northern Borneo (Sabah) formed the Malaysia Federation; Singapore in 1965 came out of the Federation); In 1960 - Somalia (the former British colony of Somaliland and the former installation area of \u200b\u200bthe UN Somalia, which was under the control of Italy), Cyprus, Nigeria (in 1961, the Nigerian Federation included the northern part of the UNIT of the UN Cameroon Brit.; the southern part of Cameroon British, united with the republic Cameroon, formed in 1961 the federal republic Cameroon), in 1961 - Sierra Leone, Kuwait, Tanganyika: in 1962 - Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda; In 1963 - Zanzibar (in 1964, as a result of the unification of Tangani and Zanzibar, the United Republic of Tanzania was created), Kenya; In 1964 - Malawi (former Nyasaland), Malta, Zambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia); In 1965 - Gambia, Maldives: In 1966 - Guyana (formerly British Guiana), Botswana (formerly Beatuanland), Lesotho (former Basutolend), Barbados; In 1967 - former aden (until 1970 - People's Republic of South Yemen; from 1970 - People's Democratic Republic of Yemen); In 1968 - Mauritius, Swaziland; In 1970 - Tonga, Fiji. Proangle monarchical regimes in Egypt (1952) and Iraq (1958) were overthrown (1958). Independence was achieved by the former ward of New Zealand Western Samoa (1962) and the former territory of Australia, Great Britain and New Zealand Nauru (1968). "Old Dominions" - Canada (in 1949, Newfoundland entered its composition), Australia, New Zealand, South Africa - finally turned into politically independent from the UK state.

France in the XVIII century was a monarchy based on bureaucratic centralization and regular army. The socio-economic and political regime in the country has developed as a result of complex compromises developed during a long political confrontation and civil wars XIV-XVI centuries. One of these compromises existed between the royal authorities and privileged classes - for the refusal of political rights, the state power by all former resources was protected by the social privileges of these two classes. Another compromise existed in relation to the peasantry - over a long series of peasant wars of the XIV-XVI centuries. The peasants have made the abolition of the overwhelming majority of cash taxes and the transition to natural relations in agriculture. The third compromise existed in relation to the bourgeoisie (which at that time was a middle class, in the interests of which the government also made a lot, while maintaining a number of bourgeoisie privileges in relation to the bulk of the population (the peasantry) and supporting the existence of tens of thousands of small enterprises, whose owners were a layer of French bourgeois). However, the regime that developed as a result of these complex compromises was not provided by the normal development of France, which in the XVIII century. began to lag behind their neighbors, primarily from England. In addition, excessive exploitation, more and more armed the masses, the most legitimate interests of which were completely ignored by the state.

Gradually during the XVIII century. In the top of the French society, an understanding of the fact that the old order with its underdeveloped market relations, chaos in the management system, a corrupt system for selling state posts, the lack of clear legislation, the "Byzantine" taxation system and the archaic system of class privileges should be reformed. In addition, the royal power lost confidence in the eyes of the clergy, nobility and bourgeoisie, among which the idea was argued that the king's power is usurpation towards the rights of estates and corporations (Montquia's point of view) or in relation to the rights of the people (Rousseau point). Thanks to the activities of enlighteners, of which physiocrats and encyclopedists are particularly important, a coup in the army of the educated part of the French society occurred. Finally, with Louis XV and even more in Louis XVI, reforms were launched in political and economic regions, which inevitably had to lead to the collapse of the old order.

Empire British

"What was the British Empire created and preserved? .. From the very first time of English colonization and to this day, this question was occupied by the minds of British thinkers and politicians." - wrote one of the English historians, K. Knorr. At different times, different answers were given different authors for this question. The manifold of points of view is characteristic of the twentieth century. Ch. Lucas as the reasons for creating the British Empire called high moral values, philanthropy, as well as considerations of national security, and T.Smit saw the main reason for expanding the limits of the empire in political calculations and ambitions of state leaders and pressure of external circumstances. R. Khaum explained the expansion with an overabent in the British of Energy, despilaratively did not want any empire, Vilson is a constant necessity of defense, and D. Yuzaug emphasized the dominant value of the economic factor. The number of works proving that the British Empire was beneficial to the financial oligarchy, works proving that it was beneficial to the entire English people and works proving that it was unprofitable to anyone about the same. And there are almost no works in which those who are trying to explain than actually for the British their empire.

We will try to do this from the point of view of ethnopsychology and start with that6 to explain how the English people perceives the people that the territory that is going to master. And by the way, we note that for Russian, the study of the British Empire has its own particular value, because its history can only be compared.

Let's start with the simplest. We highlight several basic traits inherent in English colonization. First, until the last third of the XVIII century, the British were occupied only by the incomplete parts of the world. Vastovoy, the bonds of the British with the local population of their colonies were minimal. Mixed marriages were exceptional phenomenon, the spirit of missionary until the XIX century manifested itself a little. The British as if ignored the natives. Street, right up to the XIX century, the British government made minimal participation at the base of the colonies. English historian E. Barker wrote: "When we started colonization, we already had an idea - a socially polytic idea - which in addition to the English state, there is also English society, and more precisely - English voluntary societies (and in the form of religious congregations, and in the form of trading companies) who were ready and able to act independently of the state and on their own funds ... It is English voluntary societies, and not a state, established settlements in our early colonies and thus started to create what we call the empire today. "

And what is still characteristic, English immigrants would seek England to do not tolerate with them, but to create something new that should not be made by the Second England. They settled in their new country, identified their interests with her and worked for her good. At the same time, the English colonies up to the last third of the XIX century were not perceived by the British as much significant value - this is another distinguishing feature of the English colonization. Lord J. Sili, theoretics of English imperialism, wrote: "There is something extremely characteristic of that Indifferentism, with which the British refer to the mighting phenomenon for the development of their race and expanding their state. They conquered and settled half a hundred, as it were not to pay themselves in the report ".

It can be explained by the specifics of English colonies to the specifics. English emigration initially had religious reasons, the British Bolonists took away all ties with the old light and this gap left the deepest footprint in their souls. In parallel, trading factors arose. But were they perceived quite as a colony? From the point of view of trade interests, an increase in the territory was not only not necessary for England, but even undesirable. She needed only to keep the points in his hands that dominate the main ways. "In the XVIII century, English traders have more treasured two West-Ostrian Islets than all Canada. During the time of sailing vessels, these islands dominated the marine paths connected to Europe with all American ports. There, where England has acquired really large possessions, that is, in India and Canada This was done mainly because it had to fight for each supporting point with a permanent rival - France, so that an extensive rear was needed to strengthen its position ... During the XIX century, the British Empire has grown out of these shopping stations and ports. However, these New territories no longer represented interests for British immigrants.

How strongly and crowded were crowded, based once on weakly-plated lands, was as difficult for the British the process of interiorization of land, having some significant density of the native population. Thus, the English population in India is not consisting on the military, nor in the public service by the end of the XIX century almost approached 100 thousand. And this is despite the fact that since 1859, after suppressing the rebellion, the British government pursued a policy aimed at attracting the British to India, and in the Indian subcontinant there were highlands, climate, vegetation and relative rarity of the local population are quite suitable for colonization, in any The case, more suitable for agricultural colonization than "cotton lands" of Central Asia, actively spent in Russian peasants. An English official B. Kodgeson, who served in India, the thirty years of his life, wrote that Indian Himalayas could become a magnificent find for the starving peasants of Ireland and the mountainous locations of Scotland. " An even more acute question about the British colonization of the northern regions of India.

But the question remained on paper. In order to live in the Himalayas, it was necessary to join a strong relationship with the local population. The latter in its nature the British was even pretty. The British gave the most idyllic characteristics of the residents of Himalayas. Monks and ascetics who have found asylum in the snowy severity of high mountains became the main characters of European descriptions of Himalayas. Unlike ordinary Indian sensuality, travelers found the greatest self-deprise here, so impressed the Victorians. Himalayas in the views of the British was mostly romantic. The life of the peasants was also described as predominantly in idyllic colors. Attention was paid to their unusually clean and perfectly cultivated land.

However, the British population, which was mainly from the officials of the forest department, lived in the villages, approach to which the local residents were strictly forbidden, as if the invisible barrier was delivered. And when in Garval - one of the localities of the Himalayas - Europe's European settlements, the British arrive with these romantic mountains in the same way as at the same time with the romantic mountains of their homeland - the mountains of Scotland: they strive to cut off the natural forests and plant the mountain slopes of shipposses. The actions of the British could seem purely pragmatic, if not to take into account, thereby deprived themselves of one of the few bridgeheads for the British colonization of India, having entered into a protracted conflict with the local population. As a result, British settlements of Garvala never exceeded general number In a thousand people.

The British and abstracted from the local population, and created for themselves the myth of the mysterious inhabitants of the Himalayas, and they chased the wonderful nature of the region, and recognized almost only economic use. Their perception seemed to be split. As a result, aware of the possibility, and the desirability of the peasant colonization of the Garvan region, the British did not decide to proceed.

There would be an invisible barrier between the British and the local population, to overcome which they could not. So, during the times of the colonization of America, "the threat, emanating from the Indian accepted the natural character for Puritanin and in the image of the enemy merged in the middle of the Nature, and thoring his wild element of nature ... The Puritan image of the IndianEman put his imprint to the perception of space by migrants: it is actively , this is the space "Western", full of mobile and unexpected obstacles. "

The British created their own narrow world in their possessions, which no natives were allowed and who would have to reproduce English society in miniature. However, the psychological inadequacy of this feeling reveals the fact that, having lived for several years in such colonies, the British, from colonial officials to the last vagrants, felt back to England, even greater discomfort. Those who the will of fate turned out to be more or less close to touching the non-European (which the British was avoided) acquired a complex of "Aristocrats" and those essentially turned into marginals in English society. Nothing like this knows the story of any other European people.

Any new territory where the Englishman settles, in his perception - "clean board", on which he creates his own world to his taste. This is equally applied to the colonization of America, and to the creation of the Indirect Empire. So, "Puritan, despite his missionary claims considered America as their own country, and its indigenous people, as an obstacle to their predestination as Americans. Being pioneers who mastered the rich undeveloped country, the first Americans believed in their ability to build a society responsible for them desires. " Similarly, the Indian Tabula Rasa was presented in all respects to the highest extent suitable to arrange a society there on his own manner. "

Externally, this perception can resemble the "wild field" of the Russians, but there is one very significant difference. The Russians master the "wild field", absorb it into themselves, not seeking to limit it, nor eliminate obstacles on it. Russians, as it were, ignore the conflict coordinated factors associated with the new territory, and do not make any effort to eliminate their possible destructive action. These conflict factors are initially considered not as external difficulties, but as internal, from which you will not leave, but which are not subject to planned elimination, but can only be removed in the wider context of the activities of the people. The British, if they could not avoid the collision itself, with the fact that it creates conflict - and the very fact of the existence of the native population is already for the British conflict, because the native population somehow prevents the implementation of the actual English representations - they sought to put among themselves and the local population barrier.

What was the presence of a psychological barrier between the British and the indigenous population of the colonies? Edward Spyser in the book "Cycles of Conquest" describes how from the "Insulation Policy" gradually developed the concept of reservations, which embodied in relations with the Indians of North America. Initially, this concept was expressed in the fact that agreements were signed with a number of Indian tribes as if about the territorial distinction. But significant in these agreements for the British was not the definition of territorial boundaries (on the contrary, they initially ignored these borders), and the fact that as a result of the act of signing the contract, the Indian tribe turned into an English in a certain legal entity, through which relations with it were introduced into strictly Certain and limited frames. The obvious senselessness of the endowment of the Indians with the status of a legal entity despite the fact that no defact rights for them were recognized as in parallel with the obsessive desire of the Anglo-Americans to adhere to even in cases of frank violence of certain rituals inherent in international relations, indicate that the external status of the Indians had independent value in the colonists. He made it possible to exteriorize the native factor, separating it from himself and thereby be able to abstract from him.

Such complex psychological complexes seem to be to stop colonization. And meanwhile, the British created the empire is much stronger than, for example, the Spaniards, although the latter applied more conscious efforts to create an empire. Does this mean that the unguard is in the commercial abilities of the British?

"The Empire is trade," said Chamberlain. And indeed, a significant proportion of justice is in the words that the British Empire was a "commercial combination, business syndicate." But this explanation is not enough, because how psychologically, this hypertrophied self-attacking of the British could be combined with a giant scope of their trading operations, forced them to penetrate them into the most remote parts of the Earth and feel there with full owners?

In addition, trade benefits received mainly residents of the metropolis, and they seemed to have seen in the empire only an extra ballast. Thomas Makhalya complied with the fact that the British are not at all interested in India and the "This item for most readers seems not only boring, but also positively unpleasant." The peak of the English conquest policy in the east in time (the first half of the XIX century) coincided with the peak of anti-imperial sentiment in England, so it seems like life in the British Islands flowed in itself, and in the east, where the British principle of British politics has already become "Defense of India " - by her own. The British will probably be bored with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inevitability of the loss of colonies and even the desirability of their deposition, as the economists of the Manchester school preached. However, it is not necessary to hurry with the conclusions, this apathy also had a reverse side. Having learned about the cunning and cruelty of the commander of W. Hastings, English public opinion was initially indignant, but the anger was quickly, and Hastings was justified by the Parliamentary Court. It did not want to condemn it to the British.

"In part here, self-deception is the result of not thought out to the end of ideas, partly the phenomenon of mental aberration," J. Gobson wrote. "This property to reconcile in the shower is irreconcilable, at the same time storing in the mind as a impermeable bulkhead, antagonistic phenomena and feelings, perhaps the phenomenon is exclusively. English. I repeat, this is not a hypocrisy; if the opposite of ideas and feelings would be aware of - the game would be lost; the key to success is unconsciousness. "

In fact, what Gobson speaks about is a typical structure of a functional intra-industrial conflict, when various groups inside the ethnos behave exactly the opposite way and the left hand seems to do not know what makes the right, but the result is designed for the ethnos as a whole. In this sense, the statement of J. Frand that the British Empire would exist even despite the "stupidity of her rulers and the indifference of her children." Here we are dealing with the expression of the contradictions of the internal attitudes of the British. The British mastered the whole globe, but at the same time they sought to abstract from everything that there was a non-English. Since such an image of action is practically impossible, the colonization of volianemynevas is associated with the establishment of certain relations and relations with the external non-English world, the yield was not to notice the very presence of these relations. For the British British Islands, this meant not to notice the presence of his own empire. Act in it, live in it, but not to see her. So it lasted until the middle of the XIX century, when not to see the empire was further impossible.

Models of folk colonization in principle are extraordinary. They are associated with the perception by the people of the space of the space and reflect the psychologically comfortable image of action, peculiar to any culture. These are models of human action in the world, adaptation, including psychological, person to peace and adapting them to the external environment in relation to their image of the perception of this environment. They can gain the corresponding value justification of postfactum, and they can do without it without it.

The complex and multi-step "drama" associated with the development of the new territory is the implementation of an intracultural conflict and provides for an ethnos as possible psychological comfort in the process of achieving a certain goal. "Drama" played in this way may seem too complicated, but it is much more comfortable than a straightforward action when the member of the ethnos would have to keep mutually exclusive installation and emotions in their consciousness (the ability to what and suggested by the British Gobson). However, in the culture of the people there should be ideas that would justify the force of expansion. The British could not seem to notice the empire, but it is obvious that there was a certain powerful force that pushed them to create and conservation. In the presence of all psychological difficulties, which carried British colonization with them, it is absolutely impossible to imagine that it only utilitarian grounds.

And if so, then the opinion about the non-delicate nature of the British Empire is mistakenly and caused by the fact that until the XIX century, the missionary movement was not a significant factor in the British imperial expansion.

We only have to be surprised that all researchers, for a very rare exception, denied it in a kind of ideological foundation. "The thought of the Universal Christian Empire has never let the roots on the British Islands," as one of the most famous German geopolitics E.Okst wrote about it. But is it? If the mission was incredibly difficult psychologically, then this does not mean that she did not want her. Not able does not mean not wanting. And if the incentive for the creation of the empire was a powerful religious base, then no one follows that it will appear to appear in such a straightforward manner. Imperial dominants received a fairly bizarre expression in the consciousness of the British. It should be expected that their religious grounds have a complex form.

Many people looked at the British Empire as "Shopping Syndicate", but there were not a single period in her history, in relation to which this definition would be fair. You can only say that the British Empire, the stern of all other things and "shopping syndicate". It would be better to talk about "a born alliance between religion and trade at the end of the XVI - early XVII centuries, which had a deep influence on the fact that one day was called the British Empire." And although unlike the Spanish and Portuguese Catholic preachers, Protestant missionaries were convinced that they do not need a state and his help, the influence of the clergy and his preaching was a powerful factor in creating a public attitude towards the marine expansion. There was a close connection between religion and trade. Traders and sailors believed that they were an instrument. "Sincere faith in Divine predestination cannot be questioned by anyone who studied the religious foundations of Elizavtian England ... Pious comments found in the road journals surprise the modern reader as something that is absolutely not belonging to the case ... But in the XVII century these comments were an expression of the mood of the era. "

For example, at the base in 1600 of the Ausdinian company, her head Thomas Smith, known as a person of approximate piety, was engaged in selection of Kapellanov for her. He appealed to Oxford and Cambridge in order to receive recommendations. Candidates were to read the test preaching on the specified words from the company's employees. These business people were connoisses of sermons, they discussed them with knowledge no worse than professional doctors of theology. In the selection of chaplains was also due to the purpose of the mission. The need to circulation of pagans in Protestantism was a constant theme of English discussions about colonization.

However, despite the considerable interest of society to the issues of sermon, in reality, the English mission was extremely weak. We will try to understand the reason for this by contacting the history of the concept of the concept of the British Empire.

It is important to note that in order to understand the value foundation of one or another empire, we must contact its origin, to the value dominant that gave her impulse. It would be possible to object to this that this initial impulse could be perceived by a number of subsequent statesmen as an anachronism. But new trends often threatened the fatal way to destroy the logic of imperial construction. And this logic was sometimes preserved no longer due to personal value orientations of specific statesmen, and thanks to their "sixth sense" - a sense of integrity and sequence of imperial construction.

As for the English understanding of the word "empire", as it developed at the beginning of the XVI century, there are large surprises here.

"Between 1500 and 1650, some fundamentally important concepts changed their meaning and entered public use. These are the concept of" country "," community "," empire "and" nation ". Changing the meaning of words was mainly in the XVI century. These Four words began to be understood as synonyms, acquiring the meaning, which, with minor changes, they retained and later and which was completely different from the preceding time. They began to mean the "sovereign people of England." Accordingly, the meaning of the word "people" has changed.

The word "country" (Country), whose initial value was "County" - an administrative unit, became synonymous with the word "Nation" and already in the first third of the XVI century acquired a connection with the concept of "PATRIE". In the dictionary of Thomas Eliota (1538) the word "PATRIE" was translated as "a countay". The word "CommonWealth" in the "Community" value was used as interchangeable with terms "Country" and "Nation".

With the concept of the nation begins to closely communicate and the concepts of "empire". In the medieval political thought "Empire" was closely connected with royal dignity. The concept of "empire" was based on the concept of "emperor". The emperor possessed the sovereign power within his kingdom in all secular affairs. This value was radically changed in an Act of 1533, in which the concept of "empire" was distributed to spiritual questions and was used in the meaning of "political unity", "a self-governing state, free from any expensive rulers", "sovereign national State. "

At the same time, Genesis of England as a "nation" was directly related to the concept of "executive management". The representation of the English people, which is a "nation" symbolicly towered his position as an elite, which had the right and was designed to become a new aristocracy.

Here the following comments are extremely important for us. "Executive Office" in its definite interpretation can be considered as a "action method", an attribute inherent in the full-fledged human community, and not as a political goal. At the same time, since the concepts of "nation", the "community", the "empire" are in this period actually synonymous, but "Executive Management" as a "action method" should be considered as inherent in all. In the same number of concepts should be introduced and "Anglican Church". She also has an inherent attribute "Executive Office" - which was expressed in the specifics of the missionary practice of the British. Moreover, this method of action in the consciousness of the British leads to an elevation over the world around the world and logically develops into the attribute "We". At an early stage, he was interpreted as religious superiority, then both at the same time superiority imperial ("The world's best peoples management system") and national. Then he began to be understood as superiority social. But each of these cases is more complicated than it seems at first glance. So the famous British nationalism, striking the whole of Europe, actually defended from what is usually understood under this concept, which was a very complex psychological complex.

In the XVI century, the connection of the Protestant faith with England is closely fixed, and as with the sovereign political union, and as with the empire. In the "Laws of the Church Policy" Richard Hyuker read: "Everyone who is a member of society (Commonwealth) is a member of the Anglican Church." In 1559, the future bishop of London Gin Eyomer proclaimed that God is Englishman and encouraged his compatriots seven times a day to thank him that they were born by the British, and not Italians, French or Germans. John Fox wrote in the "Book of Martyrs", to be an Englishman means to be a true Christian: the English people elected, allocated among other peoples preferred by God. The power and glory of England is necessary for the kingdom of God. The triumph of Protestantism was a national triumph. Identification of Reformation with "Englishness" led to the proclamation of Rome by the National Enemy and the exception of Catholics from the English nation. Bishop Latimer was the first to speak about the "God of England", and Archbishop Kraimer tied the issues of creeding with the problem of the national independence of England and its national interests.

So, the nationalism of that time was defined not in ethnic categories. It was determined in terms of religion-polytic. He was associated with the ideas of self-government and Protestantism. These two recent concepts were also directly related to the concept of "empire", that is, self-government in religious issues.

Thus, we see that the British Empire had a religious attack, comparable in its intensity with the Russian Empire. Indeed, the central idea lying on the basis of any empire always has religious origins, and, in no matter how it appears externally, it can be expressed by the words of the Prophet Isaiah: "God is with us, desire, peoples, and conquer, because with us God "(Isaiah, 7, 1819). Another thing is that sometimes over time this basis is forgotten, and those consequences that flow from it are perceived as independent phenomena. It is necessary to understand which complexes the initial religious reasons may be poured, to recognize them in the historical reality of a different time and understand what the influence of these complexes are on the operation of the people in subsequent epochs.

After what we said about the religious complexes of the British, it is easy to understand why the preaching of Protestantism in his English version was difficult. After all, English Protestantism was closely intertwined with the concept of "nation", "National Church". The British Empire carried with him the idea of \u200b\u200ba self-governing nation. That is why, obviously, English merchants, nationalists and mercantlers, showed significant awareness of theology issues. However, only in the XIX century ideas appeared, allowing to disseminate the concept of the National Church to other nations. The refusal of "equally centered", that is, from establishing around the world "Western Institutional Churches". Venn and R. Anderson developed the concept of self-governing church. The idea consisted of the need for a separate autonomous structure for each native church organization. One of the main objectives of missionary activity should be determined in terms of the "cultivated church". However, this strategy implied essentially "cultivation" rather a nation than churches, which created, in turn, new problems.

The latter circumstance should have caused a certain transfer of concepts and accents. Indeed, it is at this time in the consciousness of the British increasingly clearly manifests the idea that they carry the idea of \u200b\u200bfree management and representative bodies everywhere, "which generally correlated with the concept of self-government church. However, at this time there is an increase in racist installations, which is almost not It was before. So the word "nigga" was used in relation to Indians only from the 40s of the XIX century. English historian, arguing that the British in India did not "have been identified", clarifies, "Unlike the first conquerors." Indeed, the desire to transfer Its values \u200b\u200bto other nations implied psychological contact with them. But immediately gave himself a psychological barrier. And after him, there was a feeling that "Westernization is a dangerous occupation. Perhaps the non-European was not at all potential English gentlemen, which only undercorted in their development, and the race alien on their own essence. "

"Executive self-government" was conscious as the purpose of the imperial action ... The purpose of the action (value dominant) was proclaimed that so far there was a condition of action, the attribute of a person, without which a person was simply not a full-fledged person. The transfer of this paradigm to the discharge of the goals led to its erosion and threatened the paradigm of the empire in the Consciousness of the British. Recognition of new goals could not occur painlessly, it required a change in the "image of us". Therefore, this goal is simultaneously and declared, and rejected as a practical purpose. John Morley, Statsecretary on India, said in 1908: "If my existence as an official and even physically was continued by a fate of 20 times moreover, in fact, I would have become at the end of such a long field. To argue that the parliamentary system of India is not the target I mean.

The formation of the ideology of the new imperialism is output from a psychological impasse, the foundation of which was the idea of \u200b\u200bthe nation. In it, the attribute of "representational self-government" applies only to the British, which were recognized by people by the advantage so far there were no such rectinity. British nationalism as an ideology developed as a reaction to the eternal psychological complexes of the British as colonializers.

The creation of the Great British Empire in Asia began to be perceived as a romantic feud of courage, and not as a business enterprise. In his speech in the Kristal Palace on June 24, 1872, Benjamin Dizraeli said: "The British are proud of their vast country and wish to achieve an even greater increase; the British belong to the imperial country and wish to create an empire." Dizraeli said what was already before him, he simply stated the fact. The reflection of the middle of the XIX century about this, obviously had the fact of the fact, are the works of Ch. Dilka, J. Frand, J. Sili, in which the history of the British Empire is described and its geography is described in such a way that it turns out - the word is said. There is something average between the history of the Empire and the legend of the Empire. From this point on, the empire has been realized as integrity and dality.

It was at this time at the British Islands "Imperialism becomes finally the philosophy of history" and for someone turns into a real cult. In parallel with this process, another was followed, which began not on the British Islands, but from British India. There was the ideology of the "White Man's burden", which played a crucial role in the modification of the English ethnic picture of the world.

In India, a kind of cult of "militant energy, harsh and towards himself, and in relation to the other, seeing beauty in the courage, justice is only in force." For the creators of the British India empire was a means of moral self-education. This type of person chased and romanticized in imperial literature. India has seen "paradise for courageous people", standing with all the difficulties and dangers.

With the ideology of the "White Man's burden", on the one hand, the doctrine about the civilization mission of the British, the art of free control to plant them all over the world (and in this cut, this ideology is approaching imperial stentivity), and on the other - faith in genetic The superiority of the British race, which led to primitive nationalism. Moreover, these two components were sometimes so closely intertwined, that there was no face between them, they smoothly overflowed one to another. Their opposite was rather understandable in theory than visible in practice.

The incarnation of the fused together the contradictions was the figure of Cecil Raza, the figure of the African Empire and a friend of the R. Kipling. For him, the meaning of the British Empire consisted of a blessing that she had to humanity, reversing the peoples to civilization, but it was unshakably his conviction that the British should extract all possible benefits from this circumstance for themselves. Rissa belongs to the famous phrase: "Pure philanthropy is very good, but philanthropy plus five percent annual even better." Philosophical views of S. Rodsa are described in one of his biographies: if God exists, then in history there should be divine purposes. They are most likely the evolution of a person in the direction of creating a more advanced type of people. Since Rhodes believed that the breed of people having the best chances of evolution is the Anglo-Saxon Race, he made a conclusion that to serve the divine goal should strive to approve the domination of the Anglo-Saxon race. If he could seriously consider Rhodes, then the words of Lord Rybryry that the British Empire is "the greatest world agency of good, which has ever seen the light" should not be considered an ordinary hypocrisy.

The ideology of the "White man's burden" actually experienced various components of the English Imperial Complex: national superiority, selfless service of a religious idea, planting around the world of the art of free self-government and the romance of the conquest of the world. This is a new interpretation of imperial ideology, where a newly religious, national, imperial and social component act in unity. The paradigm of the "representative self-government" again occupies the place of not value - the "goals of action" (the purpose of action is now drawing peace to English orbit), and the "method of action", namely, the way to conquer the world. This ideological is expressed in the mandatory system (applied in practice after the First World War). To the second half of the XIX century, the British Empire was observed from an indirect (preserving significant elements of the autonomy of collecting colonies to direct (centralized management). But by the beginning of the 20th century, the dominant principle of British imperial practice is becoming a protective board. This was a serious modification of the British picture of the world.

But as English colonization and British imperial ideology are connected with each other? It seems that the life of the colonies flows by itself, and the ideology is nothing more than the head fabrication. However, if you look attentively, the correlation will be strong enough. We will try to give a description of the "image" in the picture of the British world, which would fit into the model of the English folk colonization, and would be agreed with various interpretations of the British Empire, which was a significant fragment of the British picture of the world as a whole.

So, the main subject of action in the English model of colonization is a certain "society", "community" (anyway, religious or commercial). Each of them somehow perceived the religious grounds for the British Empire (and to trade communities, as we have seen, this is fully). But since in the British ideology of the empire, the concept of "community" and "empire" is synonymous, then in this context, these communities themselves turned into a minimiperia. It is not by chance that the Austinian company called the "state in the state", it was not by chance that Lord Kerzon called India an empire in the Empire. Each "community", which ultimately evaluated no virtue of the historical reasons, but because this method of action for the British is most comfortable (the "image of the collective" in the picture of the British world), and each of them has all the more closed in itself, Abstraining both from the native population and from the metropolis. And each of them in one way or another losing inside the alternative "community - empire". It was repelled from the ideology of the "community", "a privileged (aristocratic) community", "The Community of White People" and moved to the concept of the "Aristocrats Empire".

The structure of interrelated minimiperies was created. Unity of this structure up to end XIX. The century almost fallen out of the Consciousness of the British, it was not fundamentally important. The subject of the action was "minimiperia" (whether agricultural settlements, trading factories or, later, missionary centers), and their drastic ideological substantiation ensured their mobility, and, consequently, the strength of the English expansion.

Between these "minimiperias" and "center", named by the British Empire, there was a permanent insurmountable contradiction: "Center" sought to bring his colonies ("Minimipheria") to the "single denominator", and the colonies, self-sufficient in its inner feeling resisted unification, rebelled against the center, separated from the metropolis legally. However, although the United States branch caused a significant shock in Britain and the appearance of the anti-imperial ideology of "Small England", but it did not reduce the pace of real imperial construction, as a result of which the so-called "second empire" was found. By itself, the colonial system, the structure of "minimiperies" had the body only propaganda significance. In the famous sense of Russian geopolitik I. Vernadsky, who wrote about the British Empire, that, "in his own way internal device And by the nature of their people, this country can easily do without a colony, of which no one is cohesed with her one, and each lives its special life. The composition of the British possessions is rather the aggregate of many political bodies than one inseparable integrity. Relax each of them and the metropolis will be almost with the same force. Over time, she will even acquire new possessions and the old loss will almost not be noticeable for it. "

The British Imperial Construction process is largely different from the Russian. In Russia, it is impossible to imagine even the very idea of \u200b\u200bthe uprising of the Russian population of some outskirts against the center. Russian colonization leads to the expansion of the Russian state territory: a Russian colony, forms outside the Russian territory, stimulated border movements. In the British Colony, originally under British jurisdiction, strive to get out of it. But this path led to the creation of a kind of "method", united not so much legally how much through language and value unity. The words of the French researcher of the colonial problems P. Lerruabol are quite suitable for British colonization that: "Colonization is an extensive power of the people, this is his ability to reproduce, the ability to go down and diverge on Earth, this is the subordination of the world or its extensive part of its language, its intensities , your ideals and your laws. " This is ultimately an attempt to bring the world in line with the ideal, which is inherent in this people.

source unknown

England. Once conquered by the Romans, this tiny country and the nation became one of the most extensive and powerful empires in history. Its effect spread to all corners of the globe. Technologies, innovations, ambitions - these tools were created great empire.

They spawned outstanding British Fleetwho kept in his hands the whole world ocean. The royal fleet of 18-19 centuries was everywhere.

The British Empire has created massive symbols of domination, which to this day inspire awe. But the basis of this empire lay vanity, bloodshed and an insurmountable thirst for conquest.

Wilgelm the conqueror

410 year. The most powerful empire, famous to the world, was attacked. On the distant British Islands once uncomplicated roman legions retreat to the shore. He leaves after a military and political void. For the first time in more than 400 years, the vulnerable Island country of Britain was in itself. That was the end of one empire and the beginning of another.

"The sun never goes to the British Empire," many have heard these words, although there is no empire for a long time. At the time of his heyday, the British Empire held the four part of the land - 36 million square kilometers.

But how could the island in the midst of the Northern Atlantic become a huge empire? At the beginning of the 400s, when the Romans fled under pressure, and some of these laughing peoples decided to stay. Perhaps I liked the mild climate. In a few centuries, they were self-organization, and english people were born.

But with the death of the last true Saxon king, the path of another people opened - who were descendants of the Vikings who inhabited Northern France.

. He will become the most cruel and insatiable ruler in the history of England. His name was.

About appetite Henry Hello legends: He was eager for food, women, power and son, who once will give the reign of the reign.

The best way to fulfill your royal debt is produce heir. And if you look at the portraits of the tudor men, they are standing, spreading legs wide, hands on hips, and this is not an accident: they seem to say "I am a man, I can produce the heir." Son was proof of masculinity.

He is without memory falls in love with Anna Boleyn, He wishes her, because Anna was a very attractive woman, and she knew about it. The only problem is how to get rid of my wife? Not killing, naturally. And answer: divide.

When Dad refused to give Henry permission for divorce, the king was angry: if he cannot control this religion, he will simply replace it. He is bold ripped all connections with Rome And proclaim himself head.

Now Heinrich had absolute power over his country. He divorced Catherine and made Queen Anna. But when she did not bore his son, then suddenly turned out to be accused of treason.

Everything was presented so that you won't think of: she allegedly twisted not one novel, and immediately several. In the palace, some orgies were held, and Henry readily believed in it. Henry ordered to arrest Anna And send to the born London.

The entire complex occupied the territory of 7 hectares and was surrounded by an impregnable wall. Wooden elements were changed by stone blocks, the wall was reinforced by several towers, an internal perimeter was erected second wall For greater reliability. Outside, pulled deep ditches and filled them with water. With these additional fortifications, the complex has been practically impregnable.

At the board of Henry Fortress became personification of vice and cruelty, notorious prison, dungeon and the execution of many of his enemies.

Here Anna was waiting for her fate - execution through beheading. The decapitation of the ax was a terrible procedure, because usually a terrible tool did not reach the goal from the first blow.

Anna Bolein Heinrich said: "For you, dear, only the best." Instead of cut off her head with an ax, he will order to make it quickly and carefully sword.

On May 19, 1536, Anna was brought into a small courtyard in the Tower. One quick blow and henry's problem was solved.

But the desire to produce the heir was only one of the ambitious plans of the King: from the very beginning of the Board he easted to glorify, Turn England into the powerful empire.

The idea of \u200b\u200bcreating an empire, which will cover the whole of Europe and will extend beyond its borders, never left Henry VIII. Reality in his imagination granted a dream about.

But on the path of Heinrich, the creation of the empire also stood up, two European superpowers. His plan is to send floating weapons of mass destruction to distant seas.

Summer 1510. The workers' army combines England's forests in the search for material for the construction of what England will help create an empire. Before conquering land, Heinrich VIII was supposed to conquer the sea. He decided to radically change the strategy of wars, turning his ships into deadly weapons.

He was the first to start ships heavy weapons: those guns that used to use only during the siege, some of them weighed almost tons and were able to cause damage to the enemy's ship and convince him to surrender.

Massive guns demanded large ships. Heinrich ordered his engineers to build a new fleet. The flagship ship became the pearl, one of the first warships in the world. He was called.

The ship was the personification of the engineering thought of that era. Install on board as many guns directed in different directions - this was "Mary Rose", platform for guns.

On Mary Rose, something fundamentally new - boots for guns. The holes were cut on the sides of the ship and closed with hatches. He allowed shooting from guns from sides. Shipbuilders assigned entire decks under the guns. Additional instruments turned "Mary Rose" in machine death. Began revolution in shipbuilding, and Mary Rose became her first swallow.

By the middle of the 16th century, England got up on the path of conquering seas. But soon, Heinrich faced a problem: Dear bronze cannons, which were equipped with ships, quickly estimated royal treasury. He had to come up with another way to produce heavy artillery, which would make his army and fleet invincible with less costs. The ideal solution was cast iron gun: She was 50 times cheaper than bronze.

The workable cast-iron gun has not yet created, but Heinrich knew how to speed up the process: he remembered a large iron region of the country Wilde, and ordered engineers.

The complexity of the casting of such an element like a gun was that first iron was necessary to melt at very high temperatures. There was only one way to get the required temperature - the engineering miracle of that time oven with forced.

First, the workers put a tree and iron ore on the top of a 6-meter stone oven. The water wheel led the huge fur, which fled the fire until the temperature reached 2,200 degrees sufficient to melt the iron. Then the workers opened the crane at the base of the furnace. The stream of hot iron poured into the shape, buried deep in the ground.

It was a serious matter, it required various resources: they needed furnaces for coal production, people who harvested the forest, workers extracting iron ore from the ground, brigades that brought and loaded ore and coal into the oven.

Over the next few centuries, cast iron guns from Wyld Steel the object of envy of all European rulers.

This completely changed the placement of forces: the guns were given England power and technological advantagewho had no country.

For some 30 years, Heinrich built new fleet. But he was not destined to fulfill his long-standing dream - to conquer: Non-comma appetite served this suffering obesity to a man's bad service. It died in January 1547, leaving the descendants the memory of cruelty and inventions, ahead of the era. He sowed seeds, of which the powerful empire will grow.

Heinrich laid the foundationBy building a fleet, to make it clear that Britain will become an empire, stating the world.

George III - Mad King of the British Empire

The next 150 years of Britain will expand through colonies and conquests using growing power of your fleet. By the middle of the 18th century, Britain controlled part India , Africa, and North America.

But on the horizon there were two serious threats, and the king, who will fight with them, will fight with his demons.

Everyone spoke about his madnessPhysical ailment affected its brain. The first attack of madness happened at Georg in 1788 in 7 years after a serious blow. A small territory in another part of the world won the powerful British. This country was called.

When British troops left the city of York, when they surrendered, the world seemed to stand upside down. So it was: the world in which the rebels win the victory is a crazy world.

The following decades of the world of George slowly, but correctly changed. In 1804, the king and his empire will threaten a new trouble: the French emperor.

In the early 19th century, the conqueror-tyrant quickly mastered Europe. England was the only obstacle to the continental domination. He was the same threat as the Nazis in World War II, and he prepared troops to the invasion of the British Islands.

The British Royal Fleet became the main sea strength and in 1805 he met with Napoleon's aggressor in the famous. Using fearless tactics and most technically perfect ships of that era, England defeated the united forces of French and Spanish fleets.

The trafalgar battle strengthened the position of England, making it the main sea power. British Steel unrivaled shipbuilding masters.

But by the time of the final defeat of Napoleon in 1815, King George III fully covered madness: He finally survived from the mind and almost lost sight. The king wandered along the corridors, could not independently eat, the long beard was growing, did not know what day today.

Great Western Railway

By this time, England turned into superpower, the superiority of which was based on shipbuilding. But another technology will appear, which will bring the British Empire to world domination. The 19th century was about to bring the invention to significantly comparable to the achievements of the Romans.

By the 19th century, Britain turned into a richest industrial Giant. With tremendous success, she was obliged to stunning inventions in the field of technology, which embraced the empire first, and then the whole world.

It is difficult to recall another period of history associated with such lifting in the field of technology, With such a desire to experiment with machines, introduce new construction methods, bring something new to architecture.

In the past, the empire was built with hands, and the British won their territories with the help of cars. Such innovations as metal casting and the transformation of the warship into a single controlled machine with guns transformed the English fleet, and this fleet turned England to the empire. And this military-economic empire spread out from Europe to Asia, from America to Africa, dominant. But what about sushi?

In the early 19th century, Britain survived the performance leap, but her lacked ground transportation. In 1782, some have improved ferry engineBut only after 40 years and his sons took this engine and with the help of firebox, boiler, piston and stunning invention called the pipe put on rails, which developed an unimaginable speed of 47 km / h.

"Rocket" was not the first steam locomotive, but its unique features said that the steam engine is the power of the future. The key to speed is just in the engine.

Several copper tubes were transferred to hot gas from coal coal to the tank with water, bringing it to a boil. A pair appeared, which rose through the valve into the cylinder. The strongest pair pressure was moving the piston rod associated with the wheels of the locomotive, pushing it forward. Bringing steam through the pipe, and not through the cylinder, provided fresh air access to the firebox to maintain fire. With such an innovation "Rocket" could fly at a huge speed.

Of all the locomotives that could be imagined at the time, this most similar to the one that we used to see. Of course, it will continue to improve, but this the basis of the locomotive for the next 100 years.

Now it was necessary to guess the Britain of the railway network, and in 1833 the bold brilliant engineer joined this race and became famous. His name was.

Brunette was a real showman: dressed well, beautiful wife, he was a celebrity and knew how to use it. And he was a workaholic, he constantly lacked time.

Brunetse had ambitious plans: his railway will become the most ambitious project in history, this network will connect all corners of England. Brunel called her and intended to make the most speed in the world.

He wanted the road to have a minimal angle of inclination, then the train will be able to ride it much faster. Thirst speed required passing through the mountainand not on them, and in connection with this, its greatest technical achievement appeared - railway tunnel.

Obviously, it was necessary subtime in stone tunnel Full length of the mountain, and it was 1 km 200 m. At the time, it was just inconceivable! Even today is a serious tunnel.

Brunette collected hundreds of Irish landcraftTo break through this tunnel. He began with the fact that several mines were made from the mountain surface to the base. To remove solid rocks used powder. Then the workers went down to the mines in the baskets and pulled the fragments with almost bare hands. Forces of horses with the winch, these debris raised to the surface.

It was a long, complicated and sometimes quite dangerous process, and of course, during the construction of the tunnel did not cost without the victims: a lot of dust, soot, and during explosions, the workers risked to be filled with stones.

After 4 years, the tunnel who climbed a hundred lives was completed. The Great Western Railway, finally opened in 1841. Trains still pass through this tunnel.

Railway maniaBrousel helped to be checked, eventually embraced the empire, even more enhancing the influence of England on the whole world. Railways, which have arrived from the beginning of the 19th century from the beginning in England, and then around the world, were the subject of admiration: they are long, loud, dirty, they personify the power and speed, conquering space and time - incredible achievement!

The advantage of England from the construction of railways allowed her for several decades to get other countries. Empire reached his heyday.

But the strongest blow, applied to her center, will make the empire shudder to the very foundation.

October 1834. Dark night in London in the heart of the British Empire in the Westminster Palace began strongest fire. For several centuries, this complex was a team center of Britain and the symbol of its power and disadvantages. Now the flame has turned the palace in the fiery geenna, and thousands of people with horror thought about what would now be with their powerful government.

The fire of 1834 inflicted the strongest blow to the political center of the British Empire. The Westminster Palace in one form or another stood since the end of the 11th century, and now there are some ruins from him, and the British wondered: will the parliament ever meet in this place? Will his members vote in the walls where the modern political system was born?

It was supposed to solve the Special Royal Commission, and the answer was "yes": the building of the Parliament will be reconstructed. But there was a more difficult question: what will it look like this building? Build it in, french or english style? And if yes, then in style Elizabeth Tordor Or English?

Two years, this question did not give anyone to sleep well, while in 1836 the Royal Commission did not choose a plan, fan from 97 projects italian Renaissance. He connected his features with neo-neutic, and it turned out a modern building of parliament, the team Saltka styles, but impressive.

From the ruins of the Old Parliament, British architects will be treated truly a giant building: it is twice as much more American. Built from yellowish sandstone Palace engaged in the area of \u200b\u200b32 thousand square meters. Its towers rise at 98 meters.

Big Ben, or Elizabeth Tower

It was decided that on one of them will be installed huge watches. This tower, which was called for a long time Big Ben , in 2012 she was renamed Elizabeth in honor ElizabethII..

In the 19th century it was possible to accurately measure the time, and it was a very valuable resource: time is money. And in the 19th century there is a real revolution in this regard. If such ambitious construction was planned, it was not necessary to do without hours.

When the Royal Astronomer announced the requirements for the clock, everyone was amazed: it will be the most huge and accurate clock in the world.

The requirements of Eyri were very strict. For example, one of them stated that the clock should be accurate with maximum accuracy of 1 second per day, and reports on their accuracy should be sent in twice a day. That was not the 21st century of informatization, for the watchmakers of the 19th century, setting up a giant mechanism, and even in the tower, taking into account the severity of the mechanism and the shooter, with such accuracy so that they show the right time a second in the second, an hour in an hour, a week for a week, year after year , despite the fact that they will be exposed to rain, snow, wind - all this was this miracle, so unheard of a flight on the moon.

And the parliament asked Eyry, could he offer a plan more real and less expensive? But Eiri was adamant, so the Elizabeth Tower, the name of the bell, became eliminate accuracy for the whole world.

It is amazing, but the famous project belonged to a lover's watchmaker Edmund Beckett Denison. He managed to achieve the necessary accuracy, while experts did not cope with the task.

Like all hours of this type, they will be driven by cargo, gears and pendulum. But Big Ben will have fundamentally new elementwhich will protect the pendulum from the impact of external forces. Two metal lever Control the wheel with three knitting needles. With each wave pendulum, one of the levers is shifted, allowing the wheel to turn one unit. This regulates the movement of the clock. When the snow or rain is put on arrows of the clock, the levers are insulating the pendulum, and he continues to swing unchanged.

To customize the clock, the keepers of time needed only to climb into the pocket. Coins used to adjust the clock: Reporting or removing the pences of an old sample from the pendulum, it was possible to add or donate 2/5 seconds per day. Thanks to this ingenious, but simple method The clock has become a global accuracy benchmark.

The clock tower over the parliament building in the center of the Empire is symbolic, as if the British manage the time itself.

In addition to the hours, there were bells that mark the passing time. Every hour called giant central bell. Bells George Mias., created this giant in accordance with Denison's instructions. So Born Ben Weight in 13 tons.

In 1858, thousands of people went to the streets to see how the Ben run was hoisted onto the clock tower. Since then, his ringing is regularly distributed over London.

London has grown significantly. It was the world's first city with a suburb, and he had to appear symbols, the main of which became "Father of all parliaments" - Parliament building with Big Ben, symbol of power and power of the British Empire.

Victoria - Teenage girl at the head of the British Empire

By the mid-19th century, the United Kingdom established high standards in the field of new technologies. But in the board of the young and naive queen London will amaze a crisiswhich will not be caused by a real catastrophe.

In 1837, the brethren of the rule of the powerful empire on Earth moved to a teenage girl. Her climbing the throne gave rise to wave of discontent: and subjects, and the government looked at her, as a spoiled child, a non-help to rule the country. Her name was the queen.

She was only 18 when she climbed the throne, and the first two years were extremely difficult for her: her badly accepted. Then it was difficult to assume that this girl will turn into a worst of the power of the power of the empire.

She began to change when the cousin was married in 1840. Victoria fell in love with almost first glance. She wanted her whole life to be to lean to whom to rely on, including literally. And Albert fulfilled this role: he came and helped her to grow up.

By this time, the empire extended the whole world from North America to Australia. Albert and Victoria supported technology development and constructionThey knew how important it was for their growing empire. And one of the priorities was the creation.

The empire stretched almost all the globe. We went to talk about overcoming space and time using an electrical telegraph. With the filing of British such an innovation as a telegraph, captured the whole world. In the middle of the 19th century, over 155 thousand kilometers of steel telegraph wires were extended. It was possible to send a message from England and get it in India in just a few hours.

It was the first in the world information supermarket. With its help, the empire could manage its territories much more efficiently than before.

Without a doubt, this is the greatest achievement, no one has decided to think about this before.

Grand Sewer London System

Achievements of technology not only united the empire, they provoked unprecedented production boom. People left the village with converged in the cities in search of the best work. Labor productivity rapidly grew like population of the capital - London.

If at the beginning of the 19th century, the population was a million inhabitants, then by 1850 there were 2 million of them, and London was not intended for such a number of people: it was crowded, people lived as in a huge smokehead.

Thames. The situation did not foretell anything but the catastrophe.

Do you think that Thames are a huge river, a great way to get rid of London waste? But unfortunately, London supplied with water. Just imagine: the waste of two million inhabitants were discharged to the Thames, and then the Londoners drank this water.

1848 year. London struck the catastrophe: on the overcrowded city flashed epidemic cholera, 14 thousand people died. Three years later the epidemic was repeated, I carry out the life of another 10 thousand victims. The cemeteries were crowded. One of the most advanced cities in the world was in the conditions that did not see from the time of the medieval epidemic.

For 30 years, 30 thousand Londoners died. The reason for this was the epidemic of cholera, which spread through contaminated water.

It was necessary to do something. England appealed to the engineer named. His project will make coup in urban planning. With the help of thousands of workers, it will build the most perfect sewer system of that era.

Basalgetta's innovative approach assumed the installation of manifolds with pipes that should have become parallel to the Thames in the London line. These pipes will be associated with two thousand kilometers of old pipes of urban sewage, collecting waste and not giving them to get into the river.

The genius of the system is that to remove the effluents from London, if possible, was used gravity: Pipes were located under a slope.

Where the strengths of gravity were not enough, basalgette built large pumping stations. There, huge steam engines raised waste to the level when the strength of gravity began to act.

In the tubes, waste fell with giant tanks, where they were kept to the tide, when nature could get rid of them gently.

This sewer system It was one of the wonders of the 19th century. On its construction gone 300 million bricks. Grand project! They managed to make something colossal. Brilliant and easy!

The implementation of such a large-scale project turned London into the first shining capital of the capital. European city with reverence studied the city's system.

Tower Bridge

However, the epidemics of the crisis of the era of the Board of Victoria did not limit themselves. If you read "Heavy times", so much that the city began to press out his own success.

We needed the second crossing, but the traditional bridge will block the path to large shopping ships. London was needed drawbridge.

This divergent bridge will become the largest and most sophisticated one. He will be called. The frame is made of steel and covered with a stone in order not to contrast with the London Tower.

When the bridge was built, 1200-ton wings, or farm.raised using steam engines. Couple turned huge gears along the steel beam. The thick metal pin rotated as the gear raised part of the bridge. Wings stopped at an angle of 83 degrees, skipping ships. The bridge was divorced in just a minute, an incredible achievement in the field of construction.

Tower bridge built 400 workers for 8 years. Today it is one of the most famous and recognizable bridges in the world.

For almost 10 years she spent in privacy. But when, finally, returned to public life, it was stronger and more powerful than ever. A stupid girl turned into a modern government and ranked the queen's place belonging to her.

Monuments in honor of Victoria were built around the world, there were noisy celebrations and often colonized peoples were involved in them. She was a universal favorite.

Queen Victoria has become a symbol of the magnifies and power of the empire. Victoria's rule will become culmination point in its development. Now the British Empire had possession on all continents, its population was 400 million people. No other country could challenge her power, it was the most huge empire in history.

Queen Victoria died in 1901, at the dawn of the 20th century. She led a huge state, a confident hand directing him along the path of progress.

The British Empire dragged humanity into a new era: a century of mass production, speeds and information. The world will never be the same. British ideas and achievements used everything.

Maybe the sun, in the end, and went over the British Empire, but if you take into account the wonders that she noted the entry into the new century, it never shone brighter.

British Empire.

British Empire, Represents the union of countries and territories related to the subordination of the British Crown and the affect of British capital captured in the sphere. With a population of 449.6 million people. and territory of 34.650 thousand km 2, B. and. It takes about the ¼ of the inhabitable earthly surface on which about ¼ of all mankind lives. The distribution of the population B. and. extremely uneven; The British Empire includes territories, the density of population is very significant: United Kingdom and Northern Ireland (180 people per 1 km 2) and India (70 people per 1 km 2) and such, the density of which is less than 1 person 1 km 2 (Canada). Characteristic for B. and. It is also a huge share of colonies; The share of metropolis is only 1/10 of the population and 0.7% of the territory B. and. (See Table in Art. 851 and 852).

The British Empire does not represent a single organized economic integer. The metropolis, however, is for all countries and territories B. and., With the exception of Canada, the main source of new capital and the main owner of the capital invested in industry and economy. Attachments of British capital in B. and. Estimated at 2 billion pounds. erased. At the same time, the metropolis annually invests in the rest of the British Empire, on average, from 70 to 80 million pound. erased. (Data for 1922-27). The main field of the British capital application in B. and. British Dominions and India are, and British capital seeks to consolidate the support points in the economy: ways of communication and monopolies of raw materials and only in the second place is looking for premises in the grade. Industry.

Metropolis dominance is also enshrined by the dependence of countries and territories of the British Empire from the UK as the central market of food and raw materials produced by them; Through the UK, the distribution is also significant. Parts exported by B. and. "Exchange goods": cotton, wool, rubber, non-ferrous metals, copers, tea, etc. Paths of the message B. and. are fully under the control of the UK; Nodal points in the Mediterranean and Red Seas connecting the Asian possessions B. and. With the metropolis, focused in the hands of British capital (Gibraltar, Suez, Aden). The share of the British Empire accounts for 34.2% of the World Trade Fleet; The overwhelming participation of the British Fleet in the maritime transport B. and. And the control of the UK on the global freight market is the most important factors contributing to the unity B. and., so on. It is necessary to take into account the remoteness of the most important centers B. and. from each other: distance London-Singapore - 13.200 km (41 days for cargo, steamats); Singapore Vancouver - 11.342 km (35-36 days); Vancouver-London (through Panaman Canal) - 14.174 km (44 days); Brisbane-London - 19.138 km (60 days). Control of the UK on the means of the message B. and. Not limited to sea shipments, it also covers sea cables: direct cables from the UK go to Gibraltar, Malta and Suez, in India (Bombay), from Suez to Colombo-Singapur - South-Western Australia; from London to Newfoundland and Halifax to Canada and West India; From Vancouver to Fiji, new. Zealand and Australia, from London on Captoon (Y. Africa).

The unity of the British Empire also contributes to a single monetary circulation system (except India and Canada), as well as a unified system of measures and scales borrowed from England. Although in Customs B. and. It does not represent a single whole and within its limits there are countries of free trade (metropolis), protectionism in the initial stage (India) and highly developed protectionism (Canada), nevertheless, the system of imperial "preferences", i.e., customs discounts for imperial goods, Creates a predominant position for trading between the components of the British Empire countries and territories compared with trade with other countries.

If the war meant the growth of imperial sentiments in the British Empire., Currently, the separatism of these trends is noticed and the strengthening of separatism. Trading ties within the British Empire do not show the desire for creating something like the Customs Union, but in general among the dominion begins to use the idea of \u200b\u200b"preferences" of imperial goods. In the UK itself, the conservatives, in view of the protracted economic crisis after the war, should have abandoned their protectionist illusions and would be able to hold "preferred" duties for goods produced inside B. and.

The British Empire, hugging almost a quarter of the population of the globe, gives the ratio of white to color peoples, equal to 1 to 6. The national and revolutionary movement among the colonial peoples, supplied until the time before the time of the huge apparatus of British imperialism, create not enough smoldering foci of the uprising, ready to flare the first one way. All this, against the background of deterioration of the material conditions of the existence of the proletariat and the protracted economy. Crisis