One of the mechanisms of adaptation of the body to the environment is self-regulation - the basis of resistance (resistance) of the body to influencing factors.
A great contribution to the study of the mechanisms of adaptation of the organism to the environment was made by P.K. Anokhin. He is the creator of the theory of functional systems. Functional system - this is a combination of processes and mechanisms, which, being formed, depending on the given conditions, leads to the effect of adaptation to these conditions. This system is created every time anew, in relation to the influencing factor, is capable in the shortest possible time, most economically and rationally to bring the body out of an extreme situation.
The immune system plays an important role in the adaptation of the body. Immunity (lat. immunitas - release, getting rid of something) - the body's immunity to infectious and non-infectious agents and substances with alien antigenic properties.
Exercises immunity the immune system organism, which is a collection of lymphoid organs: central (thymus, sac of Fabricius, bone marrow, lymph follicles) and peripheral (lymph nodes, spleen and immune-component blood cells T- and B-lymphocytes), capable of recognizing foreign substances and forcing a specific immune response. There are 30-40 billion lymphocytes circulating in human blood, of which 60% are T-cells, and 40% are B-cells. The function of B-lymphocytes is the production of antibodies. With the help of T-lymphocytes, acting as assistants in antibody formation, B-lymphocytes begin to multiply and turn into plasma cells that actively produce antibodies - specific immunoglobulins, bind and neutralize the antigen as a result of the formation of an antigen-antibody complex, then this complex is destroyed by various non-specific influences and excreted from the body. A number of substances (interferon, lysozyme, properdin, B-lysine, lymphokines) produced by leukocytes and other cells of the body are also involved in providing immunity.
The formation of immune reactions begins in the embryonic period, then throughout a person's life, they carry out a number of complex protective functions, gradually weakening in old age. There are two main types of immunity. These are hereditary (congenital) and acquired (non-hereditary). Allocate innate passive immunity, which is transmitted from mother to child through the placenta. It is unstable, as the developed antibodies die quickly. However, a child under 1 year old is practically not sick. infectious diseases. Innate active immunity arises as a result of contact of the organism with an antigen and is not established immediately - after 1-2 weeks or later, and persists for a relatively long time - for years or tens of years.
Actively acquired immunity is immunity that is created by vaccination, i.e. administration of attenuated antigens. As a result, antibodies are produced, memory cells are formed. Upon repeated contact with this antigen, the body's resistance increases, i.e. antibodies are quickly formed, and the person does not get sick. Passively acquired immunity is immunity that is created by introducing ready-made antibodies into the body. Depending on the outcome of the infectious process, two forms of acquired immunity are distinguished - sterile and non-sterile.
Immunity can be specific and nonspecific. Specific is called immunity to a particular infection (for example, diphtheria), and non-specific - congenital or acquired resistance to a variety of pathogens. Sometimes specific immunity, actively or passively developed in relation to a certain pathogen, is simultaneously accompanied by the development of nonspecific immunity to another or other pathogens. Along with general immunity, local, tissue immunity is distinguished, meaning by this shifts in the reactivity of individual tissues that occur against the background of general immunity. These shifts are expressed to varying degrees in different tissues.
Adapting the body to change environment due to another very important factor - a large "margin of safety" of the body . The organism is arranged according to the limited limit plan and the principle of the strictest economy. For example, the heart can at any time increase the number of contractions by 2 times, and increase blood pressure by 30-40%. Arterial blood contains about 3.5 times more oxygen than is used by the tissues. Removal of 2/3 of each kidney is tolerated without serious impairment of renal function. It has been established that 1/10 of the adrenal glands is enough to save life. The margin of safety in a living organism is achieved in various ways: the reserve capabilities of the body, changes in metabolism, the inclusion of other body systems, changes in the structure of the cell (hypertrophy, regeneration). In the course of evolution, the economical and beneficial use of energy and matter was improved. The principle of paired organs, the principle of duplication of functions, the detoxic function of the liver, the principle of consistency and self-regulation underlie the adaptation of the body to environmental factors.
An important role in the mechanisms of adaptation is also played by the general adaptation syndrome, the so-called stress response And biological rhythms .
It should be noted that any protective and adaptive organization is a relative concept. The operating factor may make demands above the limit of human adaptive capabilities. The discrepancy between the adaptive capabilities of a person to the influence of environmental factors can be quantitative, when the intensity of the impact is above the permissible limit, or qualitative. For example, adaptation of cardio-vascular system to hypoxia is manifested in an increase in the minute volume of blood, an increase in blood pressure and heart rate, there is a redistribution of blood and oxygen flow to the heart, as well as the release of red blood cells from the depot.
Adaptation of the organism to various conditions of existence
The concept of adaptation - conditions of existence - technogenic conditions - forms of adaptation - phenotypic adaptation - short-term and long-term adaptation - social conditions of human adaptation
Adaptation (from lat. adaptatio- adapt, adjust) is a set of morphophysiological, behavioral, population and other features of the species, providing the possibility of existence in certain environmental conditions.
The concept of "adaptation" includes:
– processes, with which the body adapts to the environment;
- a state of equilibrium between the organism and the environment;
– implementation of the reaction norm in specific environmental conditions by changing the phenotype;
- the result of an evolutionary process- adaptiogenesis (selection and fixation of genes encoding information about the developed changes).
The phenomenon of biological adaptation is inherent in all living organisms, and especially in such a highly organized one as the human one. The conditions for the existence of any living organism can be:
– adequate(those in this moment allow the body to carry out all vital processes within the limits of the reaction norm);
- inadequate(those that do not correspond to the range of properties of the organism, determined by the norm of the reaction).
Under adequate conditions, the body experiences a state of comfort, i.e. optimal level of operation of all systems. In inadequate conditions, the body has to turn on additional mechanisms to ensure a state of stability (resistance), activate all processes. This state is called "tension". If with the help of tension the organism has not reached the state of stability, then the state of "pre-disease" develops, and then "disease". States of comfort, tension, and adaptation constitute a state of health (but not pathology); the state of adaptation is a normal physiological reaction.
Modern anthropogenic (technogenic) conditions include, as a rule, not one unfavorable factor, but a whole complex of factors to which the body must adapt. Therefore, the body's response must be not only multicomponent, but also integrated. This integration is created by the interrelated and interdependent work of regulatory, energy and non-specific components of adaptation and constitutes adaptation strategy.
Adaptation is based on a number of general patterns of reactions in the body. Depending on which systems are involved in the creation of the state of adaptation and how long this process is, two of its main forms are distinguished:
- evolutionary(or genotypic) adaptation; this process is the basis of evolution, since the existing complex of species hereditary traits becomes the starting point for changes introduced by environmental conditions and fixed at the genotype level; this process takes thousands and millions of years;
– phenotypic adaptation (arising in the course of the individual development of the organism, as a result of which the organism acquires resistance to certain environmental factors).
Phenotypic adaptation is also determined by the genetic program, but not in the form of a pre-programmed adaptation, but in the form of a reaction norm, i.e. the range of metabolic processes, the potential for ensuring the body's response to changes in environmental conditions. At the same time, the transformation of such potential opportunities into real ones, i.e. Ensuring the body's response to the requirements of the environment is also impossible without the activation of the genetic apparatus (increased synthesis of nucleic acids, proteins and other compounds). This phenomenon is called structural trace of adaptation. At the same time, the mass of membrane structures responsible for the perception of signals, ion transport, and energy supply also grows. After the termination of the action of the environmental factor, the activity of the genetic apparatus decreases and the structural trace of adaptation disappears. This indicates that the relationship between functions and the genetic apparatus is a key link in ensuring the state of adaptation. It should also be emphasized that metabolic changes aimed at ensuring the state of phenotypic adaptation are biochemical adaptation strategy, which is one of the main components of the overall adaptation strategy.
There are two forms of phenotypic adaptation: short-term (including immediate, urgent) and long-term (acclimatization).
Short-term (urgent) adaptation:
- occurs immediately after the action of the stimulus;
- is carried out at the expense of ready-made, previously formed structures and physiological mechanisms. This means that: a) the body always has a certain amount of reserve structural elements, such as mitochondria, lysosomes, ribosomes; b) the work of cells and tissues can be carried out according to the type of duplication; c) there is a certain amount of ready-made substances: hormones, nucleic acids, proteins, ATP, enzymes, vitamins, etc.; this so-called structural adaptation reserve, which can provide an immediate response. Due to the fact that this reserve is small, the activity of the organism occurs at the limit of physiological capabilities.
For urgent adaptation:
- the leading factors are the activity of non-specific components and the formation of a stereotyped response, regardless of the nature of the stimulus;
- an acute adaptation syndrome develops (Hans Selye called it "stress", which means "stress" in English) while:
The hypothalamus-pituitary system is activated;
Increased production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH);
The synthesis of glucocorticoids and adrenaline by the adrenal glands is enhanced;
The thymus and spleen shrink;
Energy and structural resources are being mobilized;
The state of adaptation is reached quickly, but it will be stable only if the factor has ceased to operate; if the factor continues to operate, then the adaptation is imperfect, since the reserves are exhausted and their replenishment is required.
Urgent adaptation is manifested by generalized motor reactions or emotional behavior (for example, the flight of an animal in response to pain; an increase in heat production in response to cold; an increase in heat transfer in response to heat; an increase in pulmonary ventilation and minute volume of blood circulation in response to a lack of oxygen).
Long-term adaptation develops on the basis of the implementation of the stage of urgent adaptation, when the systems that react to this stimulus are turned on, but do not provide a stable state, or if the stimulus continues to act.
With long-term adaptation:
– higher regulatory centers activate the hormonal system and specific components of adaptation come into play;
- there is a mobilization of energy and structural resources of the body; this is possible only with the activation of the genetic apparatus, which provides enhanced biosynthesis of structures at the molecular (induction of the synthesis of hormones, enzymes, RNA, protein, etc.), organoid (biosynthesis and hyperplasia of cell organelles), cellular (increased cell reproduction), tissue and organ (increase in the components of organs and tissues) levels;
– biochemical strategy of adaptation is carried out due to the synthesis of necessary substances, coordination of their quantity and mutual transformations;
– the leading role in ensuring long-term adaptation is played by the central nervous system, the hormonal system, and the genetic apparatus;
- the resulting structural trace of adaptation (due to the biogenesis of structures) gradually disappears when the enhanced activity of the genetic apparatus ceases; the state of stability is achieved due to the existence of a positive and negative feedback;
- the result of the adaptation process is the achievement by the body of a state of stability, which provides the body with the ability to exist in new conditions.
If the intensity of the factor exceeds the adaptive capabilities of the organism and the state of stability does not occur, then the organism goes into a state of exhaustion (its structures, systems, functions are depleted); then follows the state of pre-illness and disease.
Discussing the question of the characteristics of adaptation in humans, it must be emphasized that a person has both a biological and a social nature. Therefore, the mechanisms for achieving the state of adaptation in humans are more complex than in other types of living beings. On the one hand, a person, as a biological being, has all the adaptive processes determined by the norm of reaction and aimed at achieving the stability of the organism. At the same time, the human body, which has reached the highest specialization of its organs and systems in the process of evolution, is the most high level development nervous system, to the greatest extent capable of adapting to changing environmental conditions. At the same time, the social nature of man has created a number of features of adaptation processes that are unique to man:
- the number of anthropogenic environmental factors has increased dramatically in recent decades, while adaptation systems have been formed over millions of years in the absence of these factors or their significantly lower intensity, and therefore, in modern environmental conditions, are not effective enough;
- a person is less connected with nature, less dependent on it; subordinate to social rhythms, regulates his behavior by consciousness; deliberately chooses sometimes inadequate behavior;
- a person has additional (social) adaptation mechanisms (clothes, shoes, housing, labor organization, medicine, physical education, art, etc.);
- the second signaling system plays a leading role in human adaptation.
Features of social adaptation
Remark 1
Social adaptation is a very complex and structured process. That is why one of its main features is multi-stage. The process of adaptation cannot be primitive, and therefore is an action taking place over time. Different researchers interpret the features of staging in different ways.
In the process of social adaptation, a person shows creative qualities, seeks to change social reality. At the same time, she shows a rather strict, self-critical and demanding attitude towards herself, towards her activities, actions, possible results permanent work.
Personality during adaptation is subject to strong influence from outside, and this makes it fragmented. There is no integrity, since a person has to re-learn something new, comprehend new truths, study laws, rules of behavior, compare already studied norms with those that the new socio-cultural environment offers her. It is for this reason that the formation of personality should be considered through the prism of its activity, activity, from the point of view of the actions that it performs, and what consequences follow from this.
Given that social adaptation is the acquisition of new knowledge, this process cannot proceed flawlessly. This is due not only to a lack of experience in interacting with new conditions, but also to the fact that internal attitudes and worldview may contradict what a new community requires from a person. From here, conflicts, misunderstandings often arise, the individual makes mistake after mistake. But it is precisely by finding harmony between the inner and outside worlds, he achieves positive adaptation, and the process of entering a new environment can be considered successful and completed.
Analyzing the content of the process of social adaptation, its mechanisms and multi-stage nature, we can note several more of its features: adaptation of the individual to the social and cultural environment is an extremely controversial process that requires efforts from both the receiving environment and the individual; the process of socialization and social adaptation occurs simultaneously, their aspects are interconnected with each other; personality adaptation directly depends on biological, physiological and mental properties human body; system social institutions directly affects the adaptation processes, can both simplify them and complicate them.
Features of social adaptation in the context of a divergence of the value system
Since social adaptation is realized in various social spheres and through different institutions, then the qualities that it possesses are often interpreted depending on the sphere of adaptation of the individual.
For example, balancing in the process of social adaptation is the period when the individual is least included in the adaptation processes. He only recognizes his entire environment and the current situation, determines the problems that need to be resolved for further functioning.
Sometimes, instead of the process of adaptation, the so-called pseudo-adaptation proceeds. Its most striking feature is the appearance of adaptation to the new environment, but its complete internal rejection on the part of man. The individual has to pretend that he perceives all the norms and attitudes, but at the same time they completely contradict his usual worldview and worldview.
Sometimes adaptation is characterized as adaptation, when an individual recognizes the basic system of values and compares it with his internal intentions. On this stage one of the features of social adaptation is finding common ground and the desire to compromise with the individual (or the individual to compromise with his environment, its orders, norms and laws).
Adaptation is distinguished by another special feature - it can act as an assimilation. The individual reorients, transforms his values, from old system there is no trace of norms and rules of conduct. This happens precisely because of the influence of the environment on his worldview.
Remark 2
All of the above features can be characteristic not only for the processes of social adaptation, but also for the processes of socialization, since these two phenomena are inextricably linked with each other.
Mechanisms of social adaptation
In scientific knowledge, several main mechanisms of socio-psychological adaptation of the individual are distinguished at once:
- Firstly, it is a cognitive mechanism, which consists of the totality of all mental processes associated with cognition. Thanks to him, a person feels that he is part of a big world, seeks to know it, to feel, perceive and let through all sorts of situations. Develops memory, fantasy, thinking and imagination.
- Secondly, the emotional mechanism. It includes the moral feelings of the individual, her emotional state, feelings of calm or, on the contrary, anxiety, approval, condemnation, sympathy and pity.
- Thirdly, a practical mechanism (otherwise it is also called a behavioral one), which offers a specifically directed human activity that is realized in social practice.
Remark 3
In general, all these social and psychological mechanisms of social adaptation are very closely related to each other, and their existence separately is impossible.
Thus, the social adaptation of the individual acts as a multifaceted process, during which the individual actively develops his abilities, actively or passively adapts to new conditions, interacts with the existing social reality, tries to change himself (to change his worldview, social and behavioral attitudes), while while gradually changing the surrounding reality in accordance with their needs, knowledge and capabilities.
HOMEOSTASIS.
The problem of adaptation (theoretical aspect). Physiological mechanisms of adaptation. Homeostasis. Physical training. Specific adaptation to physical activity. General concepts of adaptation and maladaptation. Adaptive types of a person.
Biorhythmology and human health. Man as an "element" of the biosphere. Biorhythms and individual performance forecast.
7.1. adaptation mechanisms.
7.2. Urgent and long-term stages of adaptation.
7.3. Homeostasis.
7.4. The role of stress response in the mechanism of development of adaptation.
7.5. General non-specific adaptive responses according to Garkavy et al.
7.6. Reserves of the body during the development of various adaptive reactions.
7.7. Physical training.
7.7.1. Adaptation to physical activity.
7.8. adaptive types.
7.9. Biological rhythms and performance.
Control questions.
adaptation mechanisms.
Adaptation (from lat. Adapto - adapt) - the process of adaptation physiological functions organism to change environmental conditions, aimed at maintaining homeostasis.
Adaptation is a complex physiological process of adapting the body to new environmental conditions or to changes occurring in the human body itself. That is it new level the work of all organs and systems of the body, which provides the possibility of maintaining health and optimal human life in the new conditions of existence.
Adaptation can be considered in three aspects:
Adaptation as a process is the adaptation of an organism to environmental factors;
Adaptation as a characteristic of the relative balance between the organism and the environment;
Adaptation as a result of the adaptive process.
The ability to adapt is one of the properties and conditions of development healthy person. As a universal fundamental property of living organisms, adaptation is the “whale” that, together with self-regulation, maintains the constancy of the internal environment, increases the power of homeostatic systems, and communicates with the external environment. It is adaptability and self-regulation that make it possible to keep the essential parameters of the body within physiological limits, and ensure the stability of systems.
Distinguish genotypic And phenotypic adaptation.
The genotype is the hereditary basis of an organism, a set of genes localized on chromosomes. In a broader sense, the genotype is understood as the totality of all hereditary factors of an organism.
The phenotype is a system of signs and properties of an organism, which is the result of the implementation of the genotype in specific environmental conditions.
Genotypic adaptation is the basis of evolution, its achievements are fixed in the genome and are inherited. It was as a result of genotypic adaptation that the modern views animals and plants on the basis of hereditary variability, mutation and natural selection. For its manifestation, it is necessary that the acting factor work for a long period of time and it will be necessary to change at least 10 generations to fully consolidate a new adaptive trait in the human genome.
An example of genotypic adaptation is the differences between races and peoples. The most pronounced differences are differences in skin pigmentation: light skin is the result of a person's adaptation to the right level of ultraviolet radiation.
Light skin transmits ultraviolet rays better, in the deep layers of the skin, the formation of vitamin D is more active, which allowed ancient man to adapt to the conditions of the North, where there is little ultraviolet radiation and contributed to the settlement of man in new vast territories.
Phenotypic adaptation is formed throughout the individual life of a person, and the results are not inherited. Phenotypic changes acquired during life are superimposed on the hereditary characteristics of the organism and, together with them, form its individual characteristics.
Prior to the onset of the action of the factor to which adaptation takes place, there is no ready-made, fully formed mechanism in the body that provides a perfect and complete adaptation, but there is only a genetically predetermined opportunity for the formation of such a mechanism. If the factor did not work, the mechanism remains unformed. This ensures the implementation of only those adaptive reactions that are vital at the moment. Thus, an economical expenditure of energy and structural resources of the body is achieved. In this regard, it is beneficial for the body that the results of phenotypic adaptation are not inherited, since the next generation may encounter completely different environmental conditions and the specific adaptive reactions of the previous generation will not be useful, but their own adaptive efforts will be needed.
Adaptation- this is a dynamic process due to which the mobile systems of living organisms, despite the variability of conditions, maintain the stability necessary for the existence, development and procreation. It is the mechanism of adaptation, developed as a result of long-term evolution, that ensures the possibility of the existence of an organism in constantly changing environmental conditions.
Since the organism and the environment are not in a static, but in a dynamic (mobile) balance, their ratios are constantly changing, and therefore, the process of adaptation must also be constantly carried out.
The maximum possible satisfaction of actual needs is an important criterion for the effectiveness of the adaptation process. Hence, mental adaptation can be defined as the process of establishing an optimal match between the individual and the environment.
occupies an important place in human activity social adaptation. Social adaptation is the process of effective interaction of the individual with the social environment.
Domestic psychologist M. I. Bobneva identified the following social adaptation mechanisms:
Social imagination - the ability to understand one's own experience and determine one's destiny, mentally placing oneself within the real framework of a given period in the development of society, and to realize one's possibilities;
Social intelligence - the ability to perceive and capture false relationships and dependencies in the social environment;
Realistic orientation of consciousness;
False orientation.
Researchers also note the role stimulating mental states in the adaptive process. For example, for the effectiveness of labor activity, professional interest is necessary (a coach wants an athlete to become a champion, a fashion designer wants his clothes to please the eye, a doctor wants the prescribed treatment to help the patient, etc.).
If the presence of external and / or internal barriers is felt, adaptation is carried out using protective mechanisms. Let's consider each of them.
Negation- its essence is ignoring traumatic information.
Regression- a return to earlier (infantile) forms of behavior (“fall into childhood”) or the use of more simple and familiar stereotyped actions.
Reaction formation- replacement of unacceptable impulses, emotional states to the opposite (aggressiveness is replaced by softness).
crowding out- unconscious suppression of a negative mental state by eliminating it from consciousness and transferring it to the unconscious (a person, as it were, "forgets" the bad).
suppression- elimination of painful events on the basis of consciousness (avoidance of negative information).
substitution- a change in the object that caused a negative mental state, or a replacement of a need (a husband who receives reprimands from his boss takes out his anger on his wife).
Projection- selection and localization in another person or object of qualities, feelings, desires, i.e. "internal objects" that the subject does not recognize or denies in himself ("In someone else's eye you will notice a mote, in your own you will not notice a beam").
Identification- identification of oneself with a real or fictional character in order to attribute to oneself the desired qualities and properties (fanaticism, idol worship, etc.).
Rationalization- overcoming negative mental states by justifying certain actions, interpreting events in order to reduce their traumatic impact on a person.
Sublimation- transformation of the energy of instinctive drives (sexual, aggressive) into socially acceptable ways of activity (invention, artistic creativity, professional activity).
