Modern problems of science and education. Environmental management

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an examination (list or inventory) of resources used in the manufacture, use and disposal of products, and an assessment of their impact on the environment. LCA can be applied to technology as well. The first step is to define the scope of the study. At this stage, boundaries are established through which material resources and energy enter this cycle, and products and waste released into air and water, as well as solid waste, leave this cycle. Research can cover the extraction of raw materials, the production, transportation and use of products until discarded or recycled. Such an examination is quite specific and based on facts, and should be carried out in accordance with the standards ISO.

The second stage is an environmental impact assessment. The criteria used in the assessment are objective, but it is difficult to assess this impact, since the values \u200b\u200bof the exposure thresholds for a number of reasons in different places can be different. We have already mentioned an example of reservoirs where wastewater is discharged, which can be very different - from a shallow river to an estuary.

Standards ISOon LCA have been developed through international cooperation coordinated by the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC)and the EU Commission (CES). The following standards have been issued:

750 14040: 1997 - LCA. Principles and Foundations;

ISO14041: 1998 - LCA. Objectives, scope of definition and analysis of the condition;

ISO14042: 2000 - LCA. Life Cycle Impact Assessment;

ISO14043: 2000 - LCA. Life cycle concept;

ISO / TS14048: 2000 - LCA. Data storage format;

ISO / TR14049: 2000 - LCA. Application examples ISO14041 to the objectives, scope of the definition and analysis of the state.

Life cycle assessment is useful for identifying and quantifying points in the life cycle where significant environmental impacts occur, and for assessing the impact of life cycle changes (for example, when one technology is replaced by another). An example of an LCA is given in a joint work of firms Tetra Pak, StoraEnsoand the Swedish Forestry Federation, which analyzed paperboard minimization and changes in printing technology, polymer extrusion coating, distribution, retrieval and recycling systems, all of which reduced the environmental impact in the life cycle of 1 liter milk cartons.

Conclusion

The current state of the art of paper and board problems is not driven by environmental considerations. Recycling began to be used at least 100 years ago for technical and commercial reasons. In 2002, waste paper provided about 45% of the world demand for fibrous semi-finished products. The amount of collected and recycled fiber is increasing for several reasons:

Increased demand for fiber with increasing production of paper and board; increased collection of waste paper through increased public awareness and implementation of waste management programs.

The benefits of each of the three main sources of fiber can be indicated:

1. Cellulose is a flexible fiber that allows for stronger products; after bleaching of chemically pure cellulose, its smell and taste become neutral, which allows it to be successfully used for packaging food products that are sensitive to taste and smell; processing aids are recovered and reused; the energy used in production is renewable, as it comes from the non-cellulosic components of wood.
2. Wood pulp is a stiff fiber that imparts bulk to paper and board, that is, giving an increase in thickness for a given mass per unit area (g / m 2); this allows for the production of stiffer products compared to products based on other fibers; high yield from wood is provided; they can be chemically treated for bleaching and are sufficiently neutral in odor and taste to pack many foods that are sensitive to taste and odor.
3. Recycled fiber has the required functional properties and is cost effective. Its quality depends on the original paper or cardboard. The use of recycled fibers in the manufacture of paper and paperboard is socially appreciated and economical, but its environmental benefits have not been proven. The main environmental benefit is considered to be “forest conservation” through recycling and waste disposal.

Another advantage is that recycled fibers retain the original solar energy stored in it, and this energy is consumed in the production and use of virgin fiber. At the same time, energy is consumed when collecting waste and delivering waste paper to processing plants; in addition, proportionally more energy is required to make secondary products. In the production of paper and board with recycled fiber, additional losses occur, and since the equivalent recycled products have more fiber, proportionally more water must be evaporated during the production process. Since all this energy comes from fossil fuels, emissions to the atmosphere are proportionally higher as well.

These facts are presented not out of a desire for controversy, but solely to contrast them with the notion that using recycled fiber is somehow better for the environment. Logistically, primary fibers are also needed for recycling. In a short time, it is difficult to replace primary fiber with secondary fiber, and economic constraints and society's needs for waste disposal will lead to an increase in the recovery and use of waste paper. This is important because the renewability of resources depends on both environmental impacts and economic and social needs.

It is possible to point out the specific advantages of different types of fibers and their combinations in obtaining different types of paper and board, intended for different uses. Not all fibers are completely interchangeable, and therefore it is inappropriate to insist on a mandatory indication of the minimum level or content of recycled fiber.

Primary fiber is required to meet the performance requirements in many industrial paper and board applications. It is also necessary to maintain the quality of the recovered fibers and the total amount required by the industry in general. Primary fiber is also needed to replace (replenish) recycled fibers that are lost during recycling. Fibers cannot be regenerated indefinitely; in addition, processing reduces the length of the fibers and ultimately they remain in the sludge. Therefore, it can be argued that in practice, both primary and secondary fibers are needed.

Resource renewability has been shown to be dependent on social, economic and environmental factors. Many point out that environmental disputes over specific issues such as the ratio of primary and secondary fibers in products have already developed into a debate characterized by a more systematic approach to environmental issues, namely:

• extraction of raw materials;
• energy use for paper and paperboard making;
• making packaging from them;
• compliance with standards for emissions into the atmosphere, wastewater and solid waste at all stages;
• meeting the needs of products in packaging at all stages of the life cycle - packaging, distribution, transportation, sale and use by the end user;
• disposal of packaging at the end of its life cycle, with the possibility of re-using it, recycling it, incinerating it with energy recovery or sending it to landfill.

The system as a whole must be environmentally, economically and socially sustainable, and must include processes that ensure its continual improvement. The above confirms that this is the approach that is currently used in the manufacture and use of packaging based on paper and cardboard.

Wood stocks for the pulp and paper industry are renewable. Independent forest certification is carried out in many regions, including North America and Europe. More than 50% of the energy used in the pulp and paper industry comes from renewable sources. Enterprises that do not use biomass in the production process and plants that are supplied with electricity, from the point of view of society, are in the same position in terms of the resources used.

Currently, energy is obtained mainly from fossil fuels, but the share of renewable resources is constantly growing. Enterprises have improved energy efficiency through cogeneration (CHP), and have also reduced air emissions by switching from coal and oil to natural gas. Water consumption has also decreased, and the quality of wastewater has improved. The amount of recycled paper and paperboard as well as the share of recycled fibers used in the production of paper and paperboard have increased.

Through its activities in all these areas and thanks to an independent examination for compliance with international environmental protection standards (ISO14000, EMAS)and quality management (ISO9000) paper and paperboard packaging firms continue to demonstrate their commitment to sustainability and continuous improvement.

Finally, an important characteristic of the pulp and paper industry on which its sustainability claims are based is the role it plays in the worldwide carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the basis for the relationship between the atmosphere, sea and land (Figure 2.5). All life on Earth depends on carbon in one form or another. Paper and cardboard are also included in this cycle because:

• atmospheric CO 2 is absorbed by the forest and converted into cellulose fibers in the wood;
• trees in their totality form forests;
• forests have a significant impact on climate, biodiversity, etc., by storing solar energy and CO2;
• the main raw material for paper and cardboard is wood;
• non-cellulosic wood components provide more than 50% of the energy used for the production of paper and cardboard, which leads to the fact that CO 2 is returned to the atmosphere;
• the portion of paper and paperboard that has been used for a long time (eg books), as well as timber, act as a “carbon sink”, removing CO 2 from the atmosphere;
• when paper and cardboard are burned after their use with energy recovery and when biodegradable in landfills, they release CO 2 into the atmosphere.

The paper industry is investing in forestry. This leads to the accumulation of new wood, and its volume significantly exceeds the volume of cut. In addition, the amount of CO 2 used for the production of new wood exceeds the amount generated when using biofuels in the production of paper and cardboard, as well as at the end of their life cycle during combustion with energy recovery or biodegradation.

Figure: 2.5. Carbolic (carbon) cycle of paper and cardboard

Thus, the pulp and paper industry effectively contributes to the development of forestry and removes CO 2 from the atmosphere, which serves to achieve the desired goal - to ensure sustainable development of society.

UDC: 658 BBK: 30.6

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

MODERN APPROACHES TO ASSESSMENT OF THE LIFE CYCLE

PRODUCTS

Omelchenko I.N., Brom L.E.

SYSTEM OF AN ASSESSMENT OF LIFE CYCLE OF PRODUCTION

Key words: sustainable development, life cycle assessment, environmental impact, information module, inventory analysis, product chain.

Keywords: sustainable development, assessment of life cycle, ecological influence, information module, inventory analysis, productional chain.

Abstract: The article discusses a method for assessing the life cycle of products that implements the concept of sustainable development of production, describes the basics of designing information modules based on LCA (assessment of the life cycle of products, including an assessment of processing processes taking into account emissions into the environment), and gives a diagram of the production chain for an industrial enterprise.

Abstract: in article the method of an assessment of life cycle ofproduction, realizing the concept of a sustainable development of production is considered. Bases of design of information modules on the basis of LCA are described. The scheme of a productional chain for the industrial enterprise is shown.

In connection with the constant deterioration of the ecological state of the planet and the depletion of natural resources, scientists began to think about assessing the impact of products at all stages of their life cycle on the environment. The concept of sustainable development combines three aspects: economic, environmental and social and is a development model in which the satisfaction of the vital needs of the current generation of people is achieved without reducing such opportunities for future generations.

The concept of sustainable development is a continuation of the CALS concept, however, as a criterion, it uses not only the minimization of the life cycle (LCC) of products (LCC method and tools, Life Cycle Cost), but the minimization of all resources used throughout the entire life cycle with an assessment

the impact of the processes of their processing on the environment (Figure 1).

For the design of information modules for assessing the impact of production processes and products on the environment, the LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) method is used, which has now begun to be actively introduced by Western enterprises. The precondition for the creation of this method was the fact that the output of the production system is not only products, but also harmful effects on the environment (see Figure 2). The LCA (Product Life Cycle Assessment Method for Impacts) is a systematic approach to assessing the environmental impact of product manufacturing throughout its entire life cycle, from the extraction and processing of raw materials and materials to the disposal of individual components.

Energy - Water

Pollution Toxins

Figure 1 - Differences between the concepts of CALS and sustainable development

CALS concept: Consumption of cost resources during the life cycle of products - »min

The concept of sustainable development: Consumption of resources * throughout the entire life cycle of products - »min Resources * \u003d cost, raw materials, electricity, water, solid waste, air emissions

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

Raw materials and supplies

Water resources

Purchase of raw materials

Production

Use / Reuse / Servicing_

Waste management

Products

Air emissions

Water pollution

Solid waste

Products suitable for further use

Other environmental impacts

Figure 2 - Functional model of the production system in the LCA method

To implement the LCA methodology, the international standard ISO 140432000 “Environmental Management. Life Cycle Assessment. Life Cycle Interpretation ".

Information systems designed in accordance with the LCA make it possible to assess the cumulative impact on the environment throughout all stages

Table 1 - Main information and logistics systems

in the life cycle of products, which is usually not considered in traditional analyzes (for example, when extracting raw materials, transporting materials, final disposal of products, etc.). Thus, the list of the main information and logistics systems is currently being supplemented by the LCA modules (Table 1).

Logistic technology Basic information and logistics systems

RP (Requirements / resource planning) - Planning requirements / resources MRP (Materials requirements planning) - Planning requirements for materials

MRP II (Manufacturing resource planning)

DRP (Distribution Requirements Planning) -Planning distribution requirements

DRP (Distribution Resource Planning) -Resource planning in distribution

OPT (Optimized Production Technology) - Optimized Production Technology

ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) - Enterprise Resource Planning

CSPR (Customer Synchronized Resource Planning) - A resource planning system synchronized with consumers.

SCM -Supply Chain Management) -Supply Chain Management ERP / CSRP (SCM Module)

CALS (Continuous Acquisition and Life Cycle Support) -Continuous information assessment of the life cycle of products ERP / CRM / SCM-systems

PDM / PLM, CAD / CAM / CAE systems

Sustainable Development -Concept of sustainable development LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) -Evaluation of the life cycle of products LCC (Life Cycle Assessment) -Evaluation of the cost of life cycle of products ERP (Module for assessing environmental impacts)

The production chain is subject to analysis and assessment of inputs-outputs and environmental impacts - from the production of engineering products to the operation of manufactured products and disposal of production and consumption waste in the environment. The whole complex of complex relationships between production and the environment can be represented in the form of a production chain (Figure 3). With this approach, from the point of view of environmental impact management, the life cycle of products is a set of sequential and interconnected stages of the production chain, and the presence of information systems of the ERP class becomes a prerequisite for the successful application of LCA.

The LCA is based on a methodology for assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts of a product, process / service on the environment through:

Drawing up a list of input (energy and material costs) and output (emissions into the environment) elements at each stage of the life cycle;

Estimates of potential environmental impacts associated with the identified inputs and outputs

Interpreting results to help managers make the right and informed decisions.

A complete LCA product life cycle assessment analysis (Figure 4) involves four separate but interrelated processes:

1. Goal Definition and Scoping — the definition and description of a product, manufacturing process or service. Creation of conditions for the assessment, determination of the boundaries of analysis and environmental impacts.

2. Inventory analysis (Life

Cycle Inventory) - determination of the quantitative characteristics of input parameters (energy, water, raw materials) and output (emissions to the environment (for example, emissions into the atmosphere, disposal of solid waste, wastewater discharges)) for each stage of the life cycle of the research object under consideration.

3. Assessment of impacts on the environment (Life Cycle Impact Assessment) - assessment of the potential of human and environmental consequences of the used energy, water, raw materials and materials, as well as emissions into the environment, identified in the inventory analysis.

4. Evaluation of results (Interpretation) - the interpretation of the results of analysis of the state of stocks and assessment of environmental impacts, in order to select the most preferred product, process or service.

Inventory analysis of the life cycle (LCI) is carried out to make decisions within the organization of production and includes procedures for collecting and calculating data in order to quantify the input and output data flows of the production system. Input and output flows can include resource use, air emissions, water and land discharges associated with the system. The inventory analysis process is iterative. This analysis allows businesses to:

Select a criterion to determine the resource requirements necessary for the functioning of the system

Highlight certain system components that are aimed at rational use of resources

Compare alternative options for materials, products, manufacturing processes

Product Life Cycle Assessment

Defining the purpose and scope for the analysis

Inventory analysis

Environmental Impact Assessment \\

Assessment of results

Figure 4 - Main phases of LCA

An important step in inventory analysis is the creation of a Process - Resource Streams diagram, which will serve as a detailed plan for the data to be collected. Each step in the system must be reflected in a diagram, including steps for the production of ancillary products such as chemicals and packaging. Serial in-

inventory analysis of each stage of the product life cycle clearly depicts the relative contribution of each subsystem to the entire production system of the final product. This is based on the linking of inventory data on environmental impacts to certain categories of impact (Table 1).

Greenhouse effect Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide

Photooxidant emissions Methane, formaldehyde, benzene, volatile organic compounds emissions

Acidification of the environment Emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide

Consumption of natural resources Consumption of oil, natural gas, coal, sulfuric acid, iron, sand, water, timber, land resources, etc.

Toxic effects on humans Emissions of dust, carbon monoxide, arsenic, lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel, sulfur dioxide, benzene, dioxins

Waste generation Generation of household and industrial waste of different hazard classes, slags, sludge from treatment facilities

The contribution of a link in the production system to a particular impact category V is calculated by summing the masses of emissions m taking into account the corresponding eco-indicator I (for each impact category its own environmental indicator; these indicators are determined for a specific region for a certain period of time based on the base emission standards) using the formula:

The results of the LCA method can be used to make decisions both at the level of individual enterprises (for example, when modeling production, sales routes of products), and at the state level (for example, when deciding to restrict or prohibit the use of certain types of raw materials).

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

For the implementation of the LCA method in Russia, it is necessary, first of all, to develop the possibilities and methods for the exchange of environmentally relevant information. An important condition for the successful application of LCA on

enterprises should be the organization of information support for the assessment of life cycle and support from the environmental services.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC LIST

1.GOST R ISO 14043-2001

2. Environmental support of projects: textbook. manual / Yu.V. Chizhikov. - M .: Publishing house of MSTU im. N.E. Bauman, 2010 .-- 308 p.

Bulletin of the Volga University named after V.N. Tatishcheva No. 2 (21)

Technical specifications and quality assessment must be carried out at all stages of the life cycle. The objectives of the technical specification and quality assessment at each stage for each type of product can be individual. However, it is important to develop and implement the life cycle of new and modernized products, based on the planned activities of the target program "quality". The objectives of quality management at the disposal stage in market conditions are to eliminate and reduce to a minimum the harmful effects on the environment, to save energy and raw materials consumption after its use.

Central principle industrial ecology - life cycle assessment (LCA GOST R ISO 14040 ) (life-cjcleassesstept, LCA).

The essence of LCA is the study, identification and assessment of the relevant environmental impacts of a material, process, product or system throughout their life cycle from creation to disposal or, more preferably, to re-creation in the same or other useful form. The Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry defines the LCA process as follows:

Life Cycle Assessment Is an objective process of calculating the environmental impacts associated with a product, process or activity by calculating and determining the energy, material and environmental emissions used, and calculating, realizing opportunities to drive environmental improvements. Assessment includes the complete life cycle of a product, process or activity, including extraction and processing of raw materials, production, transportation and distribution, use, reuse, maintenance, recycling and final disposal.

A lifecycle stage diagram assumes that a corporation produces an end product for shipping and sale directly to a customer. Oftentimes, however, a corporation produces semi-finished products — process chemicals, steel bolts, brake systems — made to be sold and incorporated into third-party products. How does this concept apply in such circumstances?

Consider three different types of production:

• (AND) production of semi-finished products or raw materials (for example, plastic blocks from petroleum raw materials or paper rolls from recycled waste paper, wine materials from grape raw materials);
• (IN) production of components from semi-finished products (for example, concentrates for the food industry, buttons for clothes made of steel or dyed cotton);
• (FROM) processing of semi-finished products into finished products (for example, shirts, alcoholic drinks from finished wort).

Figure: Figure 5 shows Manufacturing C, where the R&D team has virtually complete control over all stages of a product's life, except for stage 1 - pre-production. For a corporation whose activities are classified as A or B , perspective changes some stages of life, but not all.

Figure: 5 Activities in the five stages of the product life cycle for consumer use. In environmentally responsible products, environmental impacts are minimized at every stage

Stage 1, pre-production . As long as a Type A corporation is the actual material provider, the concept of this stage of life is identical for all types of corporations.

Stage 2, production. The idea behind this stage of life is identical for all types of corporations.

Stage 3, food delivery. The concept of this stage of life is identical for all types of corporations.

Stage 4, product use. For corporations A, the use of the product is essentially controlled by corporations B or C, although product properties such as the purity or composition of semi-finished products can influence the production of by-products and waste. For B corporations, their products can sometimes affect the stage of use of C corporation's end product, such as when using energy from cooling pipes or requiring lubrication of bearings.

Stage 5, repair, recycling or disposal. The properties of intermediate materials produced by corporations A can often determine the recyclability of the final product. For example, a number of plastics are now being designed to optimize their recyclability. For corporations B, the approach to stage 5 depends on the complexity of the part being produced. When it comes to a part, such as a condenser, the quantity and variety of its materials and its structural complexity deserve consideration. If it can be called a module, the problems are similar to those of the manufacturer of the final product - ease of disassembly, repair, etc.

Thus, corporations A and B can and should deal with the valuation LCA their products, almost the same as corporations C. The issues of the first three stages of life are, in principle, completely under their control .. For the last two stages of life, the products of corporations A and B are influenced by corporation C, with which they deal, and in turn their products affect the characteristics of stages 4 and 5 of C corporation products.

5.2 LCA Procedure

Life cycle assessment can be a large and complex task and have many options. However, there is general agreement on the formal structure of the LCA, which contains three stages:

1. determination of purpose and scope,
2. emission inventory analysis
3. analysis and impact assessment;

in this case, each stage is followed by the interpretation of the results(fig. 6).

Fig. 6 Stages of product life cycle assessment

1. determination of purpose and scope,

The purpose and scope of the LCA is determined first, followed by an emission inventory and impact analysis. The interpretation of the results at each stage stimulates the analysis of possible improvements (which can act as feedback on each of the stages, so that the whole process is iterative). Finally, an environmental design guide is issued.

To start an LCA assessment, there is no more important step than defining the exact scope of the assessment: what materials, processes or products should be considered and how broadly will the alternatives be identified? Consider, for example, the issue of chlorinated solvent discharges from conventional dry cleaning. The purpose of the analysis is to reduce the impact on the environment. However, the scope of the analysis should be clearly defined. If limited, the scope can only include good housekeeping practices, end-of-pipe regulation, administrative procedures and process changes. Alternative materials - in this case solvents - should also be considered. If, however, the scope is broadly defined, it may include alternative service delivery options: some evidence suggests that many items are sent to chemical cleaning points not for cleaning, but only for ironing. Accordingly, offering alternative ironing services can significantly reduce emissions. You can look at the problem from a systematic perspective: with what we know about polymers and fibers, why are woven fabrics and cleaning processes still used that require chlorinated solvents? Among the issues that would influence the choice of scale in cases similar to those mentioned above: (a) who carries out the analysis and to what extent the implementation of alternatives can be controlled; (b) what resources are available to conduct the research; and (c) what is the narrowest scope of analysis that still provides adequate consideration of the systemic aspects of the problem?

Arrows indicate the main streams of information. At each stage, the results are interpreted, thus providing an opportunity to adjust the environmental performance of the activity being assessed.

The resources that can be used to conduct the analysis should also be assessed. Most of the traditional LCA methods in fact allow unlimited data collection and thus virtually unlimited resource costs. As a general rule, the depth of analysis should match the degree of freedom to choose an alternative and the importance of the environmental or technological aspects leading to the assessment. For example, analyzing the use of various plastics in the case of a current portable CD player may not require a complex analysis: the degrees of freedom available to a designer in such a situation are already quite limited by the existing design and its market niche. On the other hand, government regulators intending to restrict the use of large quantities of raw materials in numerous and varied manufacturing applications would want to do a truly comprehensive analysis, since there can be quite a few degrees of freedom in finding substitutes and the impact of substitutes widely used in the economy on the environment environment can be significant.

1. Inventory analysis

The second component of LCA, inventory analysis (LCIA GOST R ISO 14041) (sometimes called LCIA in foreign literature), is undoubtedly the best developed. It uses quantitative data to determine the levels and types of energy and materials used in an industrial system and the corresponding emissions to the environment. The approach is based on the idea of \u200b\u200ba family of material budgets in which analysts measure the costs and outputs of energy and resources. The assessment is carried out throughout the entire life cycle.

1. analysis and impact assessment;

The third stage of the LCA, impact analysis, involves comparing system emissions and the impacts on the external world into which these emissions fall, or at least the pressures on the external world.

The interpretation phase of the results is that on the basis of the data obtained at the previous stages, conclusions and recommendations are made. At this stage, an explanation is often obtained of the needs and possibilities for reducing the environmental impact of the ongoing or proposed industrial activity. Ideally, this comes in two forms: (1) maintaining LCA and (2) preventing contamination.

Less extensive, but still valuable, actions can be taken from the interpretation of the results of the review stages (scoping) and the emission inventory.

Ministry of General and Vocational Education

Russian Federation

Saint Petersburg State University of Engineering and Economics

abstract

Assessment of the life cycle of a "brick" product

Performed:

3rd year student

group No. 4/871

Rakova Victoria Konstantinovna

1) Introduction (p. 3-4)

2) Life Cycle Assessment (p. 5-6)

Clay (p. 6)

Chamber dryers (p. 7-8)

Tunnel dryers (page 8)

Drying process (p. 8-9)

Firing process (p. 9-10)

Processing of raw materials for brick making (pp. 10-11)

· Preparation (p. 11)

Shaping (pp. 11-12)

Drying (page 12)

Firing (p. 12-13)

· Packaging (page 13)

· Shipping (p. 14)

3) Disposal (p. 15-16)

4) Conclusion (pp. 17-19)

Introduction

Once on the market, a product lives its own special commodity life, which is called the life cycle of a product in marketing. Different products have different life cycles. It can last from several days to tens of years.

Product life cycle - the period of time from the development of a product to its discontinuation and sale. In marketing and logistics, it is customary to consider the trace, the stages of the cycle: 1) origin (development, design, experiments, creation of an experimental batch, as well as production facilities); 2) growth - the initial stage (the appearance of the product on the market, the formation of demand, the final adjustment of the structure, taking into account the operation of the experimental series of the product); 3) maturity - the stage of batch production or mass production; most widespread sale; 4) market saturation; 5) attenuation of the sale and production of the product. From a commercial point of view, at the initial stages, costs prevail (research costs, capital investments, etc.), then incomes prevail, and finally, the growth of losses forces production to stop.

The product lifecycle concept describes the sales of a product, profits, competitors, and marketing strategy from the moment a product enters the market until it leaves the market. It was first published by Theodore Levitt in 1965. The concept proceeds from the fact that any product will sooner or later be ousted from the market by another, more perfect or cheaper product. There is no eternal product!

The purpose of this work is to assess the life cycle of a brick.

This topic is relevant at the present time, since the life cycle of a product is of great importance. First, it directs managers to analyze the activities of the enterprise from the point of view of both present and future positions. Second, the product life cycle aims at carrying out systematic planning and new product development. Thirdly, this topic helps to form a set of tasks and justify marketing strategies and measures at each stage of the life cycle, as well as determine the level of competitiveness of your product in comparison with the product of a competitive firm. The study of the life cycle of a product is a mandatory task of an enterprise in order to effectively operate and promote the product to the market.

Life Cycle Assessment

Traditionally, bricks are made from clay, which is literally under our feet. Rain, snow, wind and solar heat - all this gradually destroys stones, turns them into small particles, from which clay is formed. Most often it can be found at the bottom of rivers and lakes.

When wet, the clay becomes soft and viscous. It is easy to give it the desired shape. But as soon as the clay dries, it hardens.

If you heat clay at a high temperature (for example, at 450 ° C), its chemical composition will change, and it is no longer possible to make it plastic again. Therefore, the molded clay bars are fired in ovens at a temperature of 870 to 1200 °. It turns out a red brick.

Since ancient times, the method of making bricks has changed little. True, most of the work is now done by machines: they dig out the clay, grind it and sift it. Then it is mixed with water and the resulting well-mixed mass is pushed through special nozzles with rectangular holes.

This is how bricks are formed. Soft blanks are dried in special rooms. Dry brick is loaded into trolleys, on which it is sent to the kiln for firing.

A good, strong brick must withstand pressures of up to 350 kilograms per square centimeter. You can safely build the tallest house from such a brick.

The organization of brick production should create conditions for two main production parameters: to ensure a constant or average composition of clay and to ensure uniform production work. To identify the true reasons for the large number of defects in production, an analysis of the compliance of the production organization with these requirements is carried out.

Brick production belongs to those types of human activity where results are achieved only after lengthy experiments with drying and firing modes. This work should be carried out with constant basic production parameters. It is impossible to draw the right conclusions and correct the work if this simple rule is not followed.

It is impossible to produce quality products with inconsistent clay composition and productivity. It is impossible to find the reasons for the rejection by reducing the processing, not being able to control and regulate the dryer mode, not observing the firing mode in the kiln. How do you know where the source of the scrap is: clay, mining, processing, molding, drying or firing?

The best clay is one of constant composition, which only bucket and bucket shovels can provide at low cost. Brick production requires a constant composition of clay over a long period of time for the experimental selection of drying and firing modes. There is no easier and better way to get excellent quality products.

Clay

Good ceramic bricks are made from mined clay with a constant mineral composition. With a constant composition of minerals, the color of the brick during production is the same, which characterizes the facing brick. Deposits with a homogeneous composition of minerals and a multi-meter layer of clay suitable for mining with a single bucket excavator are very rare and almost all of them are developed.

Most of the deposits contain multilayer clay, therefore, the best mechanisms capable of making clay of medium composition during mining are multi-bucket and bucket wheel excavators. When working, they cut the clay along the face height, grind it, and when mixed, an average composition is obtained. Other types of excavators do not mix clay, but extract it in lumps.

A constant or medium composition of clay is necessary for the selection of constant modes of drying and firing. You cannot get high-quality bricks if the composition of the clay is constantly changing, since each composition needs its own drying and firing mode. When mining clay of average composition, once selected modes allow you to get high-quality brick from the dryer and furnace for years.

The qualitative and quantitative composition of the deposit is determined as a result of the exploration of the deposit. Only exploration finds out the mineral composition, that is, what silty loams, fusible clays, refractory clays, etc. are contained in the deposit. The best clays for brick making are those that do not require additives.

For the production of bricks, clay is always used that is not suitable for other ceramic products. Before a decision is made to build a plant on the basis of the deposit, industrial tests of the suitability of clay for brick production are carried out. The tests are carried out according to a special standard procedure, which consists in the selection of technology for processing.

The tests answer several questions: is there a layer of homogeneous clay in the deposit, suitable for industrial development; if not, is the average clay composition suitable for brick making; if not, what additives are required to obtain high-quality bricks, what equipment is needed for mining and equipment for processing, etc.

Chamber dryers

Chamber dryers are fully loaded with bricks and the temperature and humidity gradually change in the entire volume of the dryer, in accordance with a predetermined drying curve for products. Dryers are used for products of electric ceramics, porcelain, earthenware and for small production volumes. It is very difficult to adjust the drying mode.

Tunnel dryers

Tunnel dryers are loaded gradually and evenly. The trolleys with bricks move through the dryer and pass successively zones with different temperatures and humidity. Tunnel dryers work well only with medium-sized raw materials. They are used in the production of the same type of building ceramics. Very well "keep" the drying mode with a constant and uniform loading of raw bricks.

Drying process

Clay, from the point of view of drying, is a mixture of minerals, consisting by weight of more than 50% of particles up to 0.01 mm. Fine clays include particles less than 0.2 microns, average 0.2-0.5 microns and coarse-grained 0.5-2 microns. The bulk of the raw brick contains many capillaries of complex configuration and different sizes, formed by clay particles during molding.

Clays give a mass with water, which after drying retains its shape, and after firing it acquires the properties of a stone. Plasticity is explained by the penetration of water between the planes of the crystal lattice of clay minerals. The properties of clay with water are important when molding and drying bricks, and the chemical composition determines the properties of the products during firing and after firing.

The sensitivity of clay to drying depends on the percentage of "clay" and "sandy" particles. The more “clay” particles in the clay, the more difficult it is to remove water from the raw brick without cracking during drying and the greater the brick's strength after firing. The suitability of clay for brick making is determined by laboratory tests.

If a lot of water vapor is formed in the raw material at the beginning of the dryer, then their pressure can exceed the ultimate strength of the raw material and a crack will appear. Therefore, the temperature in the first zone of the dryer must be such that the water vapor pressure does not destroy the raw material. In the third zone of the dryer, the raw material strength is sufficient to increase the temperature and increase the drying speed.

Mode characteristics of drying products in factories depend on the properties of raw materials and product configuration. Drying modes existing at factories cannot be regarded as unchanged and optimal. The practice of many factories shows that the drying time can be significantly reduced using methods of accelerating external and internal diffusion of moisture in products.

In addition, one cannot ignore the properties of clay raw materials of a particular deposit. This is precisely the task of the plant technologists. It is necessary to select the productivity of the brick molding line and the operating modes of the brick dryer, which ensure the high quality of the raw material with the maximum achievable productivity of the brick factory.

Process roasting

From the point of view of firing, clay is a mixture of low-melting and refractory minerals. During firing, low-melting minerals bind and partially dissolve high-melting minerals. The structure and strength of bricks after firing is determined by the percentage of low-melting and refractory minerals, temperature and duration of firing.

In the process of firing ceramic bricks, low-melting minerals form glassy and refractory crystalline phases. With an increase in temperature, more and more refractory minerals pass into the melt and the content of the glass phase increases. With an increase in the content of the glass phase, frost resistance increases and the strength of ceramic bricks decreases.

With an increase in the duration of firing, the diffusion process between the glassy and crystalline phases increases. In places of diffusion, large mechanical stresses arise, since the coefficient of thermal expansion of refractory minerals is greater than the coefficient of thermal expansion of low-melting minerals, which leads to a sharp decrease in strength.

After firing at a temperature of 950-1050 ° C, the proportion of the vitreous phase in the ceramic brick should be no more than 8-10%. In the firing process, such firing temperature conditions and firing duration are selected so that all these complex physicochemical processes provide the maximum strength of the ceramic brick.

Processing of raw materials for brick production

At the first stage, experienced geologists analyze the quality of raw materials. The mined clay is then placed in special warehouses, where it is kept open for approximately one year in order to achieve an optimal consistency. After that, the clay is collected again and sent to the nearest plant using a conveyor belt or trucks for further processing. Many companies spend a lot of time and money on the restoration of former clay mines. The territories where clay was previously mined are again becoming habitats for plants habitual for a given area and habitats for animals. Sometimes such areas are turned into recreation places for local residents or used by agricultural enterprises or forestry.

Training

The second stage of brick production begins with the collection of clay from special storage facilities, where it was stored for a year, and transportation to the departments of the feeder. The clay is then crushed (mill) and ground (roller mill). Water and sand are added, and if hollow bricks are being produced, sawdust is also added as an additional material to give the bricks the correct shape. All ingredients are kneaded to obtain the required consistency. The clay is then sent to a storehouse (warehouse of materials for making bricks using the same conveyor belt, and then it is passed through disc transmission mechanisms. After that, the clay is put into a press machine. Technical progress makes it possible to use even low quality clay that was previously discarded as residues It should also be noted that renewable biogenic materials such as sunflower seed shells or straw, as well as secondary raw materials such as paper are also used in the brick making process, all of which increase the level of compatibility of the product with the environment and reduce its cost. ...

Shaping

This stage in the production of bricks involves shaping the clay to the required shape, in accordance with the size and shape of the bricks that are to be obtained as a result of the entire process. The prepared clay is extruded through a mold using an extruder and then cut to form individual bricks or, as a result of a mechanical process, compressed into molds using an automatic clay press. Soft adobe bricks are collected on special surfaces and sent to drying. Roofing tiles made from clay are also extruded or pressed into special shapes that allow you to obtain roofing tiles of the required shape and size. Some brick and roof tile companies also design and manufacture their own molds for the process. This allows you to create signature products that will have a unique shape, configuration, and also give special optimized product characteristics.

Drying

The drying process removes unnecessary moisture from the adobe bricks and prepares them for firing. Depending on the type of product and production technology, drying can take from 4 to 45 hours. During this process, the moisture content drops from 20% of the total brick weight to less than 2%. After drying, the bricks are automatically folded for firing and placed in the kiln using special loading machines. Modern drying technologies using air flows have significantly reduced the drying time for bricks. They also reduce energy consumption, improve product quality and create new products that differ in shape and quality from traditional bricks.

Burning

Firing bricks in the kiln tunnel at 900 - 1200 ° C is the final part of the production process and lasts from 6 to 36 hours. This allows the bricks to be given the required strength. Pulp and sawdust (materials for forming a mass for the production of bricks), which were added to the adobe bricks during the preparatory process, completely burn out and leave small holes, which improves the thermal insulation properties of the product. Face bricks and roof tiles can also be produced with a ceramic surface (engobed or glazed) that is applied at high temperatures and gives the brick surface an attractive look. After firing, the bricks become permanently fireproof and refractory. Specially designed kilns with innovative technologies and modern firing technologies have significantly reduced the time required for firing by two-thirds. This gives undeniable advantages to the entire technological process: the consumption of energy from primary sources has decreased by 50% over the past ten years; reduced emissions by 90% thanks to equipment for processing residual combustion products; the quality of products and the volume of products have increased.

Packaging

After firing, the bricks are automatically immersed on special surfaces and packed with foil and spacers. This packaging method allows the identification of the bricks and ensures the safe delivery of products to the customer. The use of a thin film made from recycled polyester fiber, as well as the increased life of the surfaces for transporting bricks, significantly reduce the consumption of materials for packaging products.

Delivery

Most of the brick factories are located near railway stations. This circumstance makes it possible to arrange the shipment of finished products both by road and rail. There is even more exotic for our latitudes - water transport - however, for all its cheapness, not all routes can run near river routes. Although when supplying high quality bricks over long distances, sometimes multi-stage logistics schemes are built, in which water transportation significantly reduces the share of transport costs.

Recycling bricks

Typically, the disposal of the above product is associated with serious organizational and economic difficulties.

To improve the environmental situation, the disposal of waste of any nature of occurrence plays a very important role. Garbage appears constantly both in everyday life of a person and in industrial production. Already many today realize the need for accurate and thorough waste disposal using methods aimed at working with each specific type of waste separately.

Depending on the type and hazard class of garbage, its disposal may require the use of specialized methods. So, some wastes are taken to special landfills and buried, while others are burned in chambers at high temperatures. However, there are also more toxic, highly hazardous wastes - they can be treated with specialized cleaning agents. Also, waste disposal assumes the possibility of reusing certain types of waste (for example, metal, waste paper, broken bricks, reinforced concrete products, etc.).

Construction waste: bricks, screed, concrete, tiles obtained during the dismantling of construction objects after processing are converted into construction crushed stone of secondary origin according to GOST 25137-82.

The economic efficiency of the reuse of these resources makes it possible to reduce the cost of the finished secondary product by 2-3 times, and in the long term it may even allow to reduce the cost of building one square meter. meters of the building.

The main stages of processing construction waste are:

· Processing of source material into crushed stone on a crusher;

· Extraction of metal inclusions;

· Fractionation (sorting) of crushed stone on a screen.

The design of the complex provides for the possibility of dismantling and transporting it in separate parts. Installation does not require complex foundations and pits.

Installation diagram. Disposal of construction waste.

Conclusion

Thus, in conclusion, we can say that for each product, the company must develop a strategy for its life cycle. Each product has its own life cycle with its own specific set of problems and opportunities. The creation of strategic planning based on the product life cycle is essential for the stable long-term growth of the company. The ability to create the right base for the goods in time is the same as paving the way for a dense traffic flow, so that there are no stops and delays, and, consequently, losses, maybe even bankrupts. The ability to operate with sales promotion tools, coupled with reasonable placement of goods on the market, leads to the best of results - the birth of new success.

Many managers focus on the fact that the product is too good not to find demand even with small advertising, or, especially when the product is at the stage of maturity, they prefer to “sit back and reap the rewards of success, without thinking at all. that beyond the immediate threshold of success, a decline awaits them, which will surely come.

To prevent such unfavorable situations, all self-respecting firms put up with the fact that it is necessary to think about the death of even an unborn product. Such organizations have a long-term successful perspective, because they understand that it would not be harmonious to miss at least one stage of the product, not to replenish it with the development, or putting another one on the market. When starting to bring a new product to the market, it is necessary to immediately start forecasting a new product (modification or completely different) with the intention of having a “secure old age” for the first product. It is best to have eight of these products, in this case the company will truly gain a reputation, a place in the market and will constantly receive large profits and compliments.

There are cases when managers do not take into account the life cycle of a product, which often leads to ruin. Such firms are often referred to as “fly-by-night”, which fully describes their “success”.

Obviously, housing in the XXI century. should be built from environmentally friendly, affordable materials and today nothing prevents the designer from planning their use, with the exception of inertia of thinking, lack of information and standards, expertise, and in some cases, certificates. When considering the use of this or that material, three groups of parameters related to energy consumption, ecology, and life cycle must be taken into account. Energy consumption refers to the totality of energy consumption for the production, transportation, installation, operation during the life cycle of a material.

At the same time, it is important to know whether the materials are renewable and whether renewable energy sources are used for their production (for example, wood is a renewable material, but fired brick is not), whether there are alternative materials with lower energy consumption and energy consumption. The environmental friendliness of the material is understood as a set of answers to the questions: is the material itself or its emissions harmful to health, does it require coating and how harmful it is, is it harmful to the production, construction and operation of the material, how environmentally friendly and economical are the technologies for the disposal of material and its waste? whether the material is categorized as local. The life cycle includes the service life of the material (assessed by the criterion of equal wear in the structure), its maintainability and interchangeability, the possibility of reuse and / or harmless cheap disposal. Having collected these principles together, Western civilization came to the concept of an energy-passive eco-house.

The era of large-sized, familiar to us bricks began quite recently, a little more than 400 years ago. For many years the production of bricks was outsourced to monasteries. The hardworking and pious brethren produced bricks of amazing quality. The production went primarily to the needs of the monastery compound, the construction of new churches. Some of the bricks were sold to wealthy laymen.

Clay brick is "natural" - it is inert and breathes. Bricks are made from clay and shale, so they do not have any emissions and volatile organic components, unlike synthetic materials that can pollute the air.

Energy costs is the energy consumption required for the development of the deposit, production and transportation of material. Sometimes a brick is called a material with high energy costs, but it is necessary to estimate all the costs in the life cycle of materials in order to give an accurate estimate, and not just look at the manufacturing costs.

For maximum use and stacking, the bricks should be small and light enough for the bricklayer to lift the brick with one hand (leaving the other hand free for the shovel). The bricks are usually laid flat to achieve the optimum brick width, which is measured by the distance between the thumb and the rest of the fingers of one hand. Usually this distance is within 100 mm. In most cases, the length of the brick is twice its width, i.e. about 200 mm, or slightly more. Thus, you can use a method of laying, such as dressing. This structure of the brickwork increases the stability and strength of the structures.