Consequences of morphological changes in the processes of development of a schoolchild. Modern problems of science and education

Preschool age (up to 3 years). This age period is characterized by rapid growth and development. So, growth in the first year of life increases by 23-25 ​​cm. In the second or third year, the annual increase in height is 8-10 cm. Body weight in the first year increases by 6 kg, in the second or third - by 4-6 kg. The proportions of the body change: a relative decrease in the size of the head from 1/4 of the length (in a newborn) to 1/5 (in a child of 2-3 years).

At this age, there is an active process of restructuring of the bone tissue, the structure of the bone substance changes - coarse-fibred gives way to lamellar. Ossification of the skeleton occurs: in the first year of life, ossification nuclei appear in some bones of the wrist, at 4-8 months. ossification of the femoral head. In the first or second year of life, ossification centers appear in the epiphyses of the humerus.

Ossification of the spine occurs gradually: by the time of birth, ossification points are present in the vertebral bodies and spinous processes. The spine of a newborn does not have bends. At 6-7 weeks, the baby begins to raise and hold his head, which leads to the appearance of a cervical bend. By the beginning of standing and walking, a lumbar bend is formed. By the age of 3-4, the child's spine has pronounced curves, but they are not yet fixed.

The volume of the brain skull increases in the first year of life by 2 1/2 times. In subsequent years, the intensity of the growth of the skull decreases, but by the age of 3, the volume of its cerebral part is 80% of the volume of the cerebral skull of an adult. Since the skeleton of the body is not yet formed in this age period, but chemical composition Since bone tissue contains more organic substances (ossein) and less mineral substances, therefore, adverse conditions (prolonged incorrect position in the crib, carrying a child on the same arm, driving by the same arm) can cause spinal curvature and deformity chest.

Development of muscle tissue in children early age happens unevenly. In the first year of a child's life, the muscles of the trunk and lower extremities develop, performing the functions of sitting, standing upright and walking. In the future, the development of the muscles of the hand, etc., occurs. By the age of 3, there is a noticeable increase in muscle mass and the nervous apparatus of muscle tissue develops. The transition of the child to an upright position requires the coordinated activity of a large number of muscles, and the coordination of their work by the age of 3 becomes quite accurate, and this allows the child to walk and run freely. However, it should be noted the high excitability and lability of the neuromuscular apparatus, insignificant muscle strength, which must be taken into account when organizing the physical education of children before preschool age.

During this period, the size and histological structure of the heart change: a rapid increase in the volume of the heart and a slow histological differentiation of its tissues. The arteries in children are relatively wide, the capillaries also have a wide lumen. This, in turn, facilitates the work of the heart, provides an increased flow nutrients and oxygen to growing tissues and organs.

The heart rate decreases with age: in the first months of life it is 120-140 per minute, by the end of the first year - 110-120, by 3-4 years - 100-110.

The respiratory system in the first years of a child's life also has features.

The upper airways (nasal passages, larynx, trachea and bronchi) are relatively narrow. The chest is narrow in the upper part, the ribs are located almost at right angles to the spine, the dome of the diaphragm is high.

Therefore, breathing in young children is superficial. The necessary pulmonary ventilation is provided by the frequency of respiratory movements. So, the number of respiratory movements per minute in a newborn is 40-60; in a child of 1 year - 30-35.2; 3 years - 25-30. In this regard, the relative minute volume of breathing (per 1 kg of body weight) in children under 3 years of age is 2 times greater than in adults.

In the first years of life, intensive morphological and functional maturation of the digestive organs occurs: by the end of the second year, the capacity of the stomach increases almost 15 times (from 50 to 740 ml). From 6 months eruption of milk teeth begins, by the year their number reaches 8, and by 2-2 1/2 years all 20 milk teeth erupt. In connection with the transition to mixed food, the thickness of the muscular layer of the stomach increases. The acidity and enzymatic activity of gastric juice increases, intensive growth of the intestine occurs.

The earliest conditioned reflex is the reflex to the feeding position: it is formed by the end of the 2nd week. The formation of conditioned reflexes to visual and auditory stimuli was noted at the 2-3rd month of life.

For proper development a child in the first year of life, it is necessary to observe the regimen, the alternation of sleep and wakefulness, feeding and walking. At the same time, a stereotype is developed, which facilitates the adaptation of the child to the environment. After a year, the child develops conditioned reflexes to speech stimuli.

The formation and development of speech occurs already from the 2nd month. First, the child makes sounds, squeals, later - gurgles, then by 5-6 months. pronounces syllables. By the end of the first year, the child pronounces 5-10 simple words. In the second year, intensive development of speech occurs: phrases appear, the vocabulary reaches 500 or more. By the age of 3, the vocabulary increases to 800-1000.

The development of speech is facilitated by the pronunciation of words in combination with the impact on motor, visual and auditory analyzers. Game activities, communication with other children and parents, reading, demonstration of pictures and drawings, clear speech of adults contribute to the emergence of new words, conditioned reflexes to them.

Thus, in advance school age significant changes occur in the body of children: there is an increased growth of organs and tissues, their differentiation. Morphological changes lead to functional improvement of organs and systems. The child masters free movement and speech function.

Preschool age (3-7 years). There is a relatively uniform increase in all body sizes in children of this age period. The annual increase in height averages 5-8 cm, body weight - about 2 kg, chest circumference -1-2 cm. Body proportions change: by 6-7 years, the height of the head is only 1/6 of the body.

There is a further ossification of the cartilaginous tissue - in the epiphyses of the tubular bones, the spine. At the age of 7 years, the processes of ossification in the spine are not completed: the upper and lower surfaces of the vertebral bodies consist of cartilaginous tissue. The circumference of the chest from 3 to 7 years increases by an average of 6-7 cm. By the age of 7, ossification nuclei appear in all the bones of the wrist. The muscles that provide upright standing and walking develop most intensively, but the abdominal muscles are still poorly developed. Therefore, it is difficult for a preschooler to take a stance, and lifting weights can cause a divergence of the abdominal muscles.

The formation of the nervous apparatus of the muscles leads to a significant development of movements. In this regard, children at the age of 7 years are able to perform a variety of movements that require some coordination. They master the ability to quickly run and jump, freely walk up the stairs. The movements necessary for drawing, sculpting, weaving become available to them.

The development of motor functions in preschool age reflects the further formation of intersystem connections, central reflex mechanisms of regulation. According to I. A. Arshavsky, the features of the implementation of forms of motor activity are an objective indicator of the age development of the organism.

The processes of growth and differentiation of heart tissues are slowed down. The number of blood vessels decreases, but their lumen becomes wider, large vascular branches appear. The thickness of the left ventricle increases; the development of the nervous apparatus of the heart ends. But up to 5-6 years old, the heart of a child is characterized by insufficiency of muscle and connective tissue, an abundance of lymphatic and blood vessels. This predisposes to the development of various infections.

The growth of blood vessels continues, but somewhat lags behind the growth of the heart. The relative narrowing of the lumen of the vessels contributes to an increase blood pressure with age. So, by the age of 7, systolic pressure is about 100-110 mm Hg. Art. The heart rate is 85-90 beats / min.

By the age of 7, the formation of lung tissue is basically completed, the number of elastic elements increases. The depth of breathing increases, its frequency decreases, and by the age of 6-7 it is 22-24 per minute. Vital capacity increases with age, and at 4 years old it is approximately 1100 cm 3, by 7 years it reaches 300-1400 cm 3. At this age, there is still a high excitability of the respiratory center. Short-term physical stress, emotions lead to a violation of the rhythm of respiratory movements, a sharp increase in their frequency.

By the age of 7, secretory and motor functions gastrointestinal tract approach the function of adults. At the age of 5-6 years, the change of milk teeth to permanent teeth begins.

In this age period, the improvement of higher nervous activity continues. Conditioned reflexes are formed much faster than at an early age, but the dominant foci that arise in the cerebral cortex are not yet stable and are easily disturbed by external influences with the appearance of an orienting reaction in children. Studies by D. A. Farber of the electrical activity of the brain indicate significant changes in the maturation of brain structures and the formation of the functions of perception and attention between 4 and 6 years.

In this period great importance in the development of children have games and speech. Collective games with complex plots, meaningful relationships, vigorous activity, precise fulfillment of tasks and orders stimulate general development children. By the age of 5-6, the child pronounces sounds correctly, speech becomes more complex with a rich vocabulary.

Further improvement of visual functions is noted, however, farsightedness still persists at preschool age. Hearing sharpness increases. There are changes in the ratio of the activity of the endocrine glands: the activity of the goiter gland (thymus) and the adrenal cortex decreases; significantly increases the function of the thyroid gland. There is an increase in the function of the pituitary gland (its anterior lobe), which together with the thyroid gland regulates the processes of growth and development of the child's body.

Thus, at preschool age, the development of many functions is observed, and it is an important period in the formation of an arbitrary motor function, the systemic interaction of the body with the external environment.

The changes taking place in the higher nervous activity of a preschool child make him capable of perceiving the information necessary for learning at school.

Junior school age (7-10 years). The development of children at primary school age proceeds intensively and relatively evenly. Every year in boys and girls, body length increases by 4-5 cm, body weight - by 2-3 kg and chest circumference - by 1.5-2 cm.

The ossification and growth of the skeleton continues, the spine is flexible and supple, and therefore the incorrect position of the body of children during classes, carrying weights in one hand can lead to curvature of the spine and deformity of the chest.

The increased growth of the ribs contributes to an increase in the transverse diameter of the chest compared to the anteroposterior. There is intense ossification of the bones of the wrist.

At primary school age, the growth of the diameter of the muscle fiber of skeletal muscles continues, the number of myofibrils increases. Increases muscle strength.

As in preschool age, primary schoolchildren develop large muscles most intensively. This explains the ability of children to move on a large scale and difficulty in performing small precise movements. At the age of 7, the small muscles of the hand are not yet sufficiently developed. In combination with incomplete ossification of the bones of the wrist, this creates difficulties in teaching children to write. After 7 years, the small muscles of the hand develop rapidly, which allows children to perform fine movements and master the skills of fast writing. The strength of the muscles of the lower extremities increases significantly, however, the deep muscles of the back in primary school age are still poorly developed. Prolonged static load, incorrect posture have an adverse effect on the development of these muscles. Muscle weakness is one of the factors contributing to the development of scoliosis.

In this age period, there is a slight increase in heart mass. Systolic pressure is 100-105 mm Hg. Art., heart rate 80-85 beats per minute. From the point of view of the morphological and functional state of the cardiovascular vascular system This age period is very favorable for physical activity.

Further growth of lung tissue continues. The number of breaths decreases from 20-22 at the age of 7 to 18-20 at 10 years. At the same time, their depth and minute volume of breathing increase. Significantly increases the vital capacity of the lungs: from 1300-1400 cm 3 in 7 years to 1900-2000 cm 3 in 10 years.

Milk teeth are replaced by permanent ones. It is at this age that dental caries occurs. Therefore, careful care of the oral cavity and its constant sanitation is necessary.

Functional development continues nervous system. By the age of 9-10, the increase in brain mass, reaching an average of 1300 g, almost ends. There are features of higher nervous activity: the rapid onset of the first stage of fatigue, followed by the development of transcendental inhibition.

From the age of 8-9, the rate of formation of conditioned reflexes increases; they become stronger. Internal inhibition increases, as well as the processes of negative induction, which provide more stable attention. The maturation of the cortex and subcortical structures of the brain continues. Still insufficient, the second signal system is developed, which causes concreteness, imagery of thinking, difficulty in perceiving abstract abstract concepts. In the process of learning to write and read, the word acquires a special meaning and becomes the subject of consciousness.

By the age of 7-10, the refraction of the eye becomes commensurate, its functions are improved. Hearing also reaches a considerable degree of development.

The dominant endocrine glands at this age are the thyroid and pituitary glands. thymus highest development reaches 8-10 years. Then begins its involution and increased activity of the gonads. At this age, the body's resistance to the harmful effects of the external environment increases and there is a decrease in the incidence by the end of primary school age.

Middle school age (11-14 years). This age period in the process of maturation of the body is a turning point. It is characterized by hormonal changes, changes in the functional state of organs and systems associated with puberty. There is an intensive growth and increase in body size, growth and differentiation of organs and tissues. The increase in body length per year is 4-7.5 cm, weight - 3-5 kg; body sizes in girls are larger than in boys. In connection with the increased growth of the upper and lower extremities, the proportions of the body change. Significantly increase the anteroposterior and especially the transverse dimensions of the chest. The formation of the spine continues, intensive growth of all its departments is observed, bends are mainly formed, however, there is a danger of scoliosis and posture disorders even at this age. The ossification of the bones of the wrist basically ends by 12-13 years. From the age of 12, there is an increased growth of muscles in thickness, in connection with this, the total muscle mass increases in relation to body weight. The development of the nervous apparatus of the muscles is completed, and muscle strength continues to grow.

There is a functional instability of the nervous system during puberty, so muscle strength and endurance do not reach perfection, so physical activity should be strictly dosed.

Significant changes occur in the cardiovascular system: increased growth of the heart, an increase in the diameter of the fiber and nucleus. The rapid development of the heart compared to the lumen of the vessels causes an increase in systolic pressure to an average of 115-120 mm Hg. Art., diastolic - up to 75 mm Hg. Art. In connection with the increased excitability of the cardiovascular nerve centers, there is a violation of the rhythm of cardiac activity, headache.

The vital capacity of the lungs increases, and more in boys. So, by the age of 14 in boys it reaches 3200 cm3, in girls - 2700 cm3.

During this age period, an increased growth of the gonads begins and the ratios in the activity of the endocrine glands are disturbed. Increased activity of the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, posterior pituitary gland. The development of secondary sexual characteristics begins.

The excitability of the central nervous system and its subcortical regions increases, the role of the cerebral cortex and all types of internal inhibition weakens. In girls, this is more pronounced and may be accompanied by a violation of autonomic functions (palpitations, vascular disorders). Increased fatigue is observed both during mental and physical exertion.

Senior school (teenage) age. Puberty is completed and is accompanied by a decrease in body size growth. In girls, a decrease in the increase in body length and weight occurs at the age of 15-16, in boys - at 17-18 years.

By the age of 17-18, the growth and ossification of long tubular bones are basically completed. At the age of 15-16, ossification of the upper and lower surfaces of the vertebral bodies, the sternum and its fusion with the ribs begins. By the age of 17-18, the fusion of the pelvic bones ends, but their complete ossification occurs by the age of 20-25. The ossification of the bones of the foot and hand is completed. By the age of 17-18, it is fully formed muscle fiber with a small number of narrow elongated nuclei. There is an increase in the mass of muscle tissue; the system of energy supply of muscular activity is improved, muscle strength increases. A significant increase in muscle strength is observed in boys at the age of 15-16. With age, the difference between the muscle strength of boys and girls increases. At 15 years old, it is 8-10 kg, at 18 years old - 15-20 kg. Acquired the ability to perform a long intense load.

The intensive growth of the heart muscle continues, the diameter of its fibers increases, which leads to thickening of the myocardium and some hypertrophy of the left ventricle, characteristic of a youthful heart. The ratio of the wall thickness of the left and right ventricles is 3: 1, in adults 2.5: 1. At this age, functional disorders of cardiac activity are observed, accompanied by inorganic noises, increased blood pressure, and rhythm changes. These violations are usually temporary, but they require a rational organization of the regime of work and sports. By the age of 18, the formation of the cardiovascular system is basically completed.

By the age of 15-16, the vital capacity of the lungs increases significantly, especially in boys. An increase in pulmonary ventilation during physical activity occurs not only due to increased respiration, but also due to its deepening.

By the age of 17-18, the ratio of the activity of the endocrine glands becomes the same as in an adult.

On the part of higher nervous activity, the predominance of excitation processes and the weakening of all types of internal inhibition remain. Some adolescents have a mental imbalance, the phenomena of negativism and affective states. A rational day regimen, sports, friendly relations on the part of adults create conditions for the transition period to pass without functional disorders. By the end of puberty, balanced relations between the cerebral cortex and subcortical sections are established, the processes of excitation and inhibition are balanced.

Questions for self-control

1. The concept of ontogenesis. Basic concepts of ontogenetic development.

2. Indicators of physical, sexual and mental development.

3. The essence of heterochronous development.

4. The role of heredity and the environment in the development of the organism. The value of the social environment for human development.

5. Schemes of age periodization. Periodization criteria. Their brief description.

6. The concept of school maturity. Ways to evaluate it.

7. The concept of "acceleration" and "retardation". The main hypotheses explaining the causes of acceleration.

8. Biological age, criteria for its determination in children of different ages.

9. Principles of biological reliability. Changes in reliability in ontogeny.

Bibliography

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Human anatomy: in 2 volumes / ed. M. R. Sapina. - 2nd ed., add. and reworked. - M.: Medicine, 1993. - T. 2. - 560 p.

Andronescu, A. Anatomy of a child / A. Andronescu. - Bucharest: Meridian, 1970. - 363 p.

Anokhin, P.K. Systemogenesis as a general regularity of the evolutionary process / P.K. Anokhin // Byul. experimental biol. and medicine. - 1984. - T. 26. - No. 2. - S. 81.

Antropova, M. V. Morpho-functional maturation of the main physiological systems of the organism of preschool children
/ M. V. Antropova, M. M. Koltsova. - M.: Pedagogy, 1983. - 160 p.

Arshavsky, I. A. Fundamentals of age periodization: a guide to physiology. Age physiology / I. A. Arshavsky. - M.: Nauka, 1975. - S. 5-67.

Arshavsky, I. A. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of individual development (the basis of the non-gentropic theory of ontogenesis) / I. A. Arshavsky. - M. : Nauka, 1982. - 270 p.

Bezrukikh, M. M. Age-related physiology (physiology of child development): textbook. allowance / M. M. Bezrukikh. - M.: Academy, 2002. - 416 p.

Bezrukikh, M. M. Reader on age-related physiology / M. M. Bezrukikh, V. D. Sonkin, D. A. Farber. - M. : Academy, 2002. - 288 p.

Hygiene of children and adolescents / ed. V. N. Kardashenko. - M. : Medicine, 1988. - 512 p.

Hygiene of children and adolescents. Guidelines for sanitary doctors / ed. G. N. Serdyukovskaya and A. G. Sukhareva. - M.: Medicine, 1986. - 496 p.

Grebneva, N. N. Features of the formation and functional reserves of the child's body in the conditions of Western Siberia: monograph. - Tyumen, 2001. - 108 p.

Lyubimova, Z. V. Age physiology: a textbook for students. higher textbook institutions: at 2 pm / Z. V. Lyubimova, K. V. Marinova, A. A. Nikitina. - M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 2004. - Part 1. - 304 p.

Solodkov, A.S. Human physiology: general, sports, age / A.S. Solodkov, E.B. Sologub. - M., 2001. - 519 p.

Tkachenko, B. I. Fundamentals of human physiology: a textbook for universities: in 2 volumes / B. I. Tkachenko. - St. Petersburg, 1994. - T. 2. - 412 p.

Harrison, J. Human Biology / J. Harrison, J. Weiner, J. Tanner, N. Barnicot, V. Reynolds; per. from English. ; ed. V. V. Bunak. - M.: Mir, 1979. - S. 366 - 438.

Khripkova, A. G. Age physiology: textbook. allowance for students nebiol. specialist. ped. in-tov / A. G. Khripkova. - M. : Education, 1978. - 287 p.

Khripkova, A. G. Age physiology and school hygiene: textbook. allowance for students ped. in-tov / A. G. Khripkova. - M. : Enlightenment, 1990. - 319 p.

Larionova Valentina

The state of health of the body is most fully determined by qualified medical supervision. However, self-control can be an essential addition to it. current state health, which allows timely detection of existing deviations.

Great value in the evaluation physical condition Humans also have anthropometric studies.

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MUNICIPAL STATE GENERAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

"PLOTAVSKAYA SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL SCHOOL OF BAEVSKY DISTRICT OF ALTAI TERRITORY"

Category: medicine

Determination of the harmony of the physical development of 8th grade students according to anthropometric indicators

Performed:

Larionova Valentina,

8th grade student.

MKOU "Plotavskaya secondary school"

Baevsky district

Altai Territory

Leaders:

Abramov Vasily Ivanovich,

Biology teacher.

Abramova Larisa Leonidovna,

biology teacher

S. PLOTAVA

2013

Introduction ......................................................................................................3

1. Literature review…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

1.1. The impact of environmental factors on public health …………5

1.2. Study of the physical development of students .............................................. 6

1.3. What is the norm of height and weight, and how to determine it ............................................. 7

1. Contingent and research methods……………………….…..... 8

2.1. Rules for performing anthropometric measurements .............................................. 8

body mass index)...............................8

2.3. Comparison height and weight of students with average indicators using (Anthropometric (centile) tables) .................................. 8

III. Research results……………………………………......10

3.1. Anthropometric measurements .................................................................. ........10

3.2. Determine the degree of physical development using calculation formulas ............................................. ................................................. ...............10

3.3. Results comparisonheight and weight of students with average indicators .............................................. .........13

Conclusion................................................. .................................................15

Literature................................................. ................................................. 16

Appendix…………………………………………………………….....17

Introduction

The problem of reducing the level of health of the country's population is extremely acute today. Man, of course, is the absolute value of society. And his health is a guarantee of the harmonious development of society, a guarantee of political stability and economic progress of the state. Hardly anyone can dispute this. However, just recognizing the relevance of this is not enough. If it doesn't follow practical steps to the solution of the health problem.

The study of the physical development of schoolchildren is currently one of the urgent problems, which is associated with the deterioration of the environmental situation, the widespread bad habits among schoolchildren, poor nutrition, etc. All this affects the state of physical development of schoolchildren. Physical development is the most important parameter of the physiological processes occurring in the body, and is often used as an indicator of the health status of children.

According to statistics, in recent years there has been a sharp deterioration in the health of children, an increase in chronic diseases, and a decrease in the number of healthy school leavers. Currently, only 14% of schoolchildren can be assigned to the so-called "first health group" (practically healthy). The rest have one or another deviation from the norm.

The results of medical examination of the country's schoolchildren confirmed the trend of deterioration in the health of children. Over the past ten years, the country as a whole has seen a decrease in the proportion of healthy children from 45.5 to 33.9% with a simultaneous double increase specific gravity children with chronic diseases and disabilities.

Recently, many schoolchildren have observed disharmonious development, deficiency or excess of body weight - acceleration, (or acceleration is the accelerated development of the body of a teenager during puberty), all this affects the state of health.

The state of health of the body is most fully determined by qualified medical supervision. However, a significant addition to it can be self-monitoring of the current state of health, which allows timely detection of existing deviations.

Anthropometric studies are also of great importance in assessing the physical condition of a person.

Based on the above, in order to develop measures to improve health in adolescence and eliminate negative environmental factors, it seems relevant to study the anthropometric data of students and compare them with the average for a given age.

The purpose of the research work:

to evaluate the harmony of the physical development of 8th grade students according to anthropometric indicators.

Based on the goal, the following were put forward for the solution:

Tasks:

1. Carry out anthropometric measurements.

2. Determine the degree of physical development using calculation formulas (based on data on height, weight).

3. Analyze the results of the study and compare their compliance with age norms (anthropometric (centile) tables).

4. Make a conclusion about the harmony of the physical development of students in grade 8.

Object of study: physical development students of grade 8.

Subject of study:weight - height indicator

Research methods:

1. Somatometricmethod for finding the Quetelet index

(weight-height indicator).

2. Method comparison of compliance with age norms according to anthropometric (centile) tables)

3. Statistical data processing.

The research was based on the following hypothesis: indicators of the physique of adolescents aged 13-14 years (students of the 8th grade) do not contradict the signs of the process of acceleration observed in the modern world.

The hypothesis was confirmed during the study.

Research novelty:I believe that the topic of my research is new for our school and district.

Practical significance of the work:consists in preparing information on some anthropometric indicators of 8th grade students and their compliance with average statistical data, as well as in developing practical recommendations for the risk group.

Expected Result:my work will help draw the attention of students, parents to the problems associated with the harmony of physical development, as an important indicator of health and social well-being.

This work can be used as additional material in the lessons, extracurricular activities, parent meetings.

Chapter 1 Literature Review

1.1. Impact of environmental factors on public health

The world is in early XXI century, having both undoubted achievements in science and tragic failures (natural disasters, change of political and economic regimes, deadly wars, epidemics from unknown and known diseases, etc.).

It is undeniable that only healthy man with good health, psychological stability, high mental and physical performance is able to live actively, successfully overcome difficulties.

It is known that health depends on the biological capabilities of a person, the social environment, natural and climatic conditions. Numerous studies of domestic and foreign experts show that the impact of environmental factors on human health is estimated at about 20-25% of all impacts, 20% are biological (hereditary) factors, and 10% is allocated to the share of healthcare organization. 50-55% of the specific weight of the factors that determine the health of the population is a person's lifestyle.

In the 20th century, the natural change of generations took place and is taking place in difficult environmental, economic and political conditions, which adversely affects health and worsens the gene pool of the nation.

From 33 to 44 million infectious diseases are registered annually in Russia. Economic losses from infectious diseases annually amount to about 15 billion rubles.

The number of sick newborns is growing, 20% of preschool children suffer from chronic diseases, only 15% of school graduates are considered practically healthy. Over the past 10 years, the number of healthy girls - school graduates has decreased from 28.3% to 6.3%, i.e. more than 3 times. Accordingly, from 40% to 75%, the number of girls with chronic diseases. And these are future mothers - carriers of the nation's gene pool.Over the past 6 years, the suitability for military service during conscription has fallen by almost 20%.

Health indicators are the most objective and reliable criteria for the favorable and unfavorable influence of environmental factors on the growth and development of the body.

Neglect of health, ignorance and unwillingness to lead a healthy lifestyle speaks of the disease of society, its economy, ecology, production, social life and healthcare. To preserve the main value of life - human health, it must be protected from a young age.

Research on the assessment of the health of children and adolescents makes it possible to understand and find the causes of the onset of diseases. Participation in the study will help students develop a life position aimed at a healthy lifestyle, the desire not only to be healthy themselves, but also to have a healthy future generation - children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren.

1.2. Study of the physical development of students

To assess the impact of environmental factors on human health, use various groups signs: demographic indicators (birth rate, average life expectancy, mortality); the level of morbidity and injury; assessment of the functional state of the body, corresponding to its age, etc.

One of the important indicators of health is the physical development of a person. Physical development is carried out according to objective laws: the unity of the organism and living conditions, the conditions of heredityand variability, interconnection of functional and morphological characteristics, according to the laws of age-related change of phases and periods of development.

First of all, it is assessed using anthropometry according to the state of the musculoskeletal system. Anthropometric studies have included measurements of body length (height), mass, and the determination of anthropometric indicators of physical development. This allows us to assess the individual health and the collective of students, their compliance with age standards.

Anthropometry (somatometry)

The level of physical development is determined by a set of methods based on measurements of morphological and functional features. There are basic and additional anthropometric indicators. The first ones include height, body weight, chest circumference (with maximum inhalation, pause and maximum exhalation), hand strength and back strength (back muscle strength). In addition, the main indicators of physical development include determining the ratio of "active" and "passive" body tissues (lean mass, total fat) and other indicators of body composition. Additional anthropometric indicators include sitting height, neck circumference, size of the abdomen, waist, thigh and lower leg, shoulder, sagittal and frontal diameters of the chest, arm length, etc. Thus, anthropometry includes the determination of length, diameters, circumferences, etc.

Standing and sitting height is measured by a stadiometer (see Fig. Standing and sitting height measurement). When measuring height while standing, the patient stands with his back to a vertical stand, touching it with his heels, buttocks and interscapular region. The tablet is lowered until it touches the head.

1.3. What is the norm of height and weight, and how to determine it

At present, the average height of men is 176 cm, women - 164. Girls grow up to 17 - 19 years old, boys - up to 19 - 22 years old. Quite intensive growth is observed at the beginning of puberty (this process lasts for girls from 10 to 16, for boys - from 11 to 17 years). Girls grow fastest between the ages of 10 and 12, and boys between 13 and 16.

It is known that growth fluctuations are observed during the day. The greatest body length is recorded in the morning. In the evening, growth may be less by 1 - 2 cm.

The main development factors are good nutrition (nutrition is needed for growth), sleep observance (you need to sleep at night, in the dark, for at least 8 hours), physical education or sports (an inactive, stunted body is a stunted body).

IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER THAT:

1. In adolescence (from 11 to 16 years old) there is a growth spurt. Those. one person may begin to grow at 11 years old, and by 13 years old grow to his final height, and another at 13-14 years old is just starting to grow. Some grow slowly, over several years, others grow in one summer. Girls start growing earlier than boys.

2. This growth spurt is due to and directly dependent on puberty.

3. Often in the process of growth, the body does not have time to gain sufficient weight, or vice versa, first weight is gained, and then the body is pulled into growth. This is a normal condition and does not require immediate weight loss or weight gain.

4. Losing weight and starving in adolescence is very dangerous, because a growing body, especially the brain, needs resources for growth and development. And an underdeveloped brain is then more difficult to cure than an underdeveloped body.

FOR THICK AND THIN

First of all: WEIGHT and VOLUME are not the same thing. Because MUSCLE WEIGHS 4 TIMES THE FAT for the same volume. In addition, there are several types of muscles, as well as fats (grade 8 biology course). Therefore, if the weight seems to be normal or below the norm, but looks fat, this is because there is a lot of fat, little muscle. Here you will need proper nutrition and physical efforts to turn fat into muscle - the weight will not change, the plumpness will disappear. The same applies to those who have a weight below the norm - but it looks normal, well, except that the muscles are not visible.

Also, if the weight is below normal and looks thin, this is also a lack of muscle mass. This often happens during a period of active growth, when the skeleton grows faster than the muscles. In general, this is normal and will go away on its own if you eat normally.

I especially want to note teenagers, boys and girls suffering from "belly". The reason for the appearance of the "belly" is the weakness of the muscles of the peritoneum and malnutrition. Help, as a result, physical exercise for the abdominal muscles and the establishment of a diet, the use of nutrients and useful products and eating small meals.

Chapter 2. Contingent and research methods

We conducted research aimed at studying the harmony

physical development of students, since it is known that human health depends on its physical development.

We conducted our research among students of the 8th grade, who are aged 13-14 years old, 5 boys and 5 girls of the 8th grade (there are 10 students in the class).

For our study, we used the somatometric method of individual assessment of physical development (length and body weight) using the index method. Indices of physical development are the ratio of individual anthropometric indicators, expressed in mathematical formulas.

When performing and designing the work, she used the research methods provided for in the methodological manual edited by Ashikhmina T.Ya. School environmental monitoring

Time of implementation: the work was carried out during the 2011-2012 academic year.

2.1 Rules for performing anthropometric measurements

1. It is desirable to carry out measurements in the morning hours in the same months of the year. Students work in pairs. The subject is in outer clothing (when calculating approximately, its weight is taken away) and without shoes.
2. When measuring height, the subject should stand on the platform of the stadiometer, straightening up and touching the vertical stand with the heels, buttocks, interscapular region and the back of the head. The head should be positioned so that the lower edge of the orbit and the upper edge of the tragus are on the same vertical line.
3. Body weight is determined using medical scales, you can use floor scales.

2.2. Definition of the Quetelet index (body mass index)

To do this, use the formula. The formula for calculating body mass index (BMI).

BMI \u003d Mass / (height)2

Where:

Body weight is measured in kg, height in meters.

Table 1

Quetelet index value

2.3. comparison height and weight of students with average indicators using(see Appendix 1)

(Anthropometric (centile) tables)

Age	Index
	Very short	short	below middle	average	higher middle	high	Very high
		141,8-145,7	145,7-149,8	149,8-160,6	160,6-166,0	166,0-170,7	>170,7
		148,3-152,3	152,3-156,2	156,2-167,7	167,7-172,0	172,0-176,7	>176,7

Height of girls from 13 to 14 years (cm)

Age	Index
	Very short	short	below middle	average	higher middle	high	Very high
		143,0-148,3	148,3-151,8	151,8-159,8	159,8-163,7	163,7-168,0	>168,0
		147,8-152,6	152,6-155,4	155,4-163,6	163,6-167,2	167,2-171,2	>171,2

Weight of boys from 13 to 14 years (kg)

Age	Index
	Very short	short	below middle	average	higher middle	high	Very high
		30,9-33,8	33,8-38,0	38,0-50,6	50,6-56,8	56,8-66,0	>66,0
		34,3-38,0	38,0-42,8	42,8-56,6	56,6-63,4	63,4-73,2	>73,2

Weight of girls from 13 to 14 years (kg)

Age	Index
	Very short	short	below middle	average	higher middle	high	Very high
		32,0-38,7	38,7-43,0	43,0-52,5	52,5-59,0	59,0-69,0	>69,0
		37,6-43,8	43,8-48,2	48,2-58,0	58,0-64,0	64,0-72,2	>72,2

Chapter 3 Research results

3.1. Anthropometric measurementsspent in the morning hours (during the first lesson) in the medical office of the school. The subject is in outer clothing (when calculating, the approximate weight of clothing was taken away) and without shoes.When measuring height, a stadiometer was used, body weight was determined using floor scales. All data was entered into table 1 ( The results of anthropometric measurements of students)

Table 1

The results of anthropometric measurements of students

Full name of students	age	Height, cm	Weight, kg
Borzykh M.
Borzykh D.
Grichanykh P.
Drobyshev D.
Larionov V.
Morozova Yu.
Nepein S.
Teplyakov V.
Tkachenko D.
Shapovalova V.

3.2. Determine the degree of physical development using calculation formulas(based on height, weight):

• Quetelet index ( weight-height index) And using the formula for calculating the body mass index -BMI \u003d Mass / (height)2

Compare the received value with the duevalue of the Quetelet index

(Table 1). The data was entered into table 2.

table 2

The value of the Quetelet index of students in grade 8

No. p \ p	Full name of students	Quetelet index	due value Quetelet index	Result
	Borzykh M.			underweight
	Borzykh D.			underweight
	Grichanykh P.
	Drobyshev D.			Normal body weight. Harmoniously developed, body weight corresponds to height
	Larionov V.			Excess body weight
	Morozova Yu.			Excess body weight
	Nepein S.			Normal body weight. Harmoniously developed, body weight corresponds to height
	Teplyakov V.			Normal body weight. Harmoniously developed, body weight corresponds to height
	Tkachenko D.			Normal body weight. Harmoniously developed, body weight corresponds to height
	Shapovalova V.			Excess body weight

The result of the value of the Quetelet index of class 8

The result is the value of the Quetelet index of grade 8 (boys-5 students)

The result of the Quetelet index value of grade 8 (girls-5 students)

As a result, using Quetelet index ( weight-height index) it turned out that 100% of boys harmoniously developed, their body weight corresponds to their height, and 100% of girls have deviations in physical development, since 60% of girls with

3.3. Results comparisonheight and weight of students with average indicators (see Appendix 1).

Table of changes in height and weight of students from 13 to 14 years old

(Anthropometric (centile) tables)

Based on a comparison of the data identified using anthropometric measurements, with the values ​​obtained using the calculation formulas and the average statistical data of the tables, I found that all 5 (100%) boys height corresponds to the average data, in 3 (60%) the average, in 2 (30%) boys it is above the norm, in 1 (10%) it is below the norm. (Annex 1).

Growth in 4 (80%) girls out of 5 corresponds to the average data, in 2 (40%) girls it is above the norm, in 2 (40%) the average, and in 1 (20%) girls it is also normal, but indicates a tendency to advance in growth.

Growth of 8th grade boys (5th grade)

Age	Index
	Very short	short	below middle	average	higher middle	high	Very high

Growth of 8th grade girls (5th grade)

Age	Index
	Very short	short	below middle	average	higher middle	high	Very high

Calculation of body mass indexshowed that 5 (100%) boys had normal body weight.

The body mass index in 3 (60%) girls is normal, and in 2 (40%) a high body weight, this is due to a disease with a violation hormonal background(endocrinological - according to the results of a medical examination).

Weight of 8th grade boys (5ch-sya)

Age	Index
	Very short	short	below middle	average	higher middle	high	Very high
				100%

Weight of 8th grade girls (5ch-sya)

Age	Index
	Very short	short	below middle	average	higher middle	high	Very high

Based on the tasks set in accordance with the results of the study, the following can be done conclusions:

1. The degree of physical development using Quetelet index ( weight-height index) y100% boys corresponds to the norm of harmonious physical development, and in 100% of girls it does not correspond to the norm, since 60% of girls withoverweight, 40% underweight.

2. The degree of average indicatorsstudent height and weightin accordance with age norms according to anthropometric (centile) tables), in 100% of boys in terms of height and weight, in girls, the height in 4 (80%) girls out of 5 corresponds to the average data, in 2 (40%) girls it is above the norm, in 2 (40%) is an average indicator, and in 1 (20%) girls it is also normal, but indicates a tendency to advance in growth. The body mass index in 3 (60%) girls is normal, and in 2 (40%) a high body weight, this is due to a disease with a hormonal imbalance (endocrinological - according to the results of a medical examination).

3. The level of harmony of physical development in boys was 100%, this is due to the fact that all boys from the primary grades are actively involved in sports, especially game types - football, basketball, are regular participants sports events, not prone to bad habits.

4. The level of harmony of physical development in 100% of girls does not correspond to the norm. The main reasons are insufficient physical activity, restriction in food.

Conclusion

Anthropometric indicators reflect the general level of the morphological development of the organism, which makes it possible to characterize the harmony of the physical development of a person as the main indicator of the state of health.

Each person, being born, has a genetically inherent health potential, which is realized in ontogeny. However, no matter how favorable the genetic code of the individual may be, in the process of his development, a person constantly interacts with the environment, which can contribute both to the development and improvement of existing inclinations, and to their oppression, transformation, which has negative consequences. In this regard, the problem of the formation of physical health is relevant.

Health, in its essence, should be the first human need, from this follows the most important role of educating each student's attitude to health as the main human value.

The development of a value attitude towards health belongs to the group of priority socio-cultural tasks for modern society, which determine its further development. This task is objectively important for all groups of society, but it acquires special significance in the upbringing of the younger generation. To determine ways to solve it, first of all, it is necessary to analyze the ideas and attitudes that schoolchildren have already developed regarding theirhealth and outline the next steps toformation of harmony of physical development.

1. When discussing the results of measurements, it should be clarified that the differences between their data and those given in the tables are completely natural and do not always indicate deviations in health. However, knowing the average values, you can adjust the diet, the intensity of physical activity. A person can decide what to do: lose weight, get better, exercise breathing exercises or something else.
2. Explain the need for correct posture. It is recommended not to lift weights, to sit correctly at the table, to perform exercises to form the correct posture.
3. It has been established that stretching of the growth zones causes their irritation and increases the intensity of division of the cells that form the bone. The more stretch a bone experiences, the faster it grows in length. Knowing this, you can determine what physical exercises can help accelerate growth. Jumps of any kind, exercises on the bar, volleyball, basketball, swimming lead to irritation of points and growth and to its acceleration. Growth zones are located at the ends of long bones and articular heads.

Literature

1. Ashikhmina T.Ya. School environmental monitoring. M., AGAR, 2000.
2. Brekhman I. I. Valeology is the science of health. M., 1990.
3. Kolbanov V. V. Valeology. SPb., 1998.
4. Kolesov D.V. Health of schoolchildren: new trends. J. Biology at school No. 2 \ 1996
5. Makeeva A.G. On the formation of the foundations of a health culture in adolescents. J. Biology at school No. 1 \ 2008
6. Mirskaya N.B. Educational program for the prevention of diseases of the musculoskeletal system. J. Biology at school 7\2002
7. http://familyandbaby.ucoz.ru/publ/zdorove/ocenka_sostojanija_zdorovja/55-1-0-287 - Evaluation of anthropometric indicators using centile tables
8. http://www.fiziolive.ru/html/fiz/statii/physical_growth.htm - Anthropometry (somatometry)
9. http://www.ourbaby.ru/img/article_top.gif - Using centile tables to assess the physical development of a child
10. http://smartnsmall.com/ves/Calculator_normalnogo_vesa_rebenka.php - How to determine the normal weight of a child?

Annex 1

Table of changes in the height and weight of a child from 7 to 17 years old (Anthropometric (centile) tables)

In the tables of height and weight, the division of indicators into "low", "medium" and "high" is very conditional.

Average height and weightmust be withingreen and bluevalues ​​(25-75 centiles). This height corresponds to the average height of a person for a specified age.

Growth, the value of which is within yellow too normal, but indicative of a tendency to advance(75-90 centiles) or stunting (10 centiles) in growth, and may be due to both features and a disease with a hormonal imbalance (often endocrinological or hereditary). In such cases, it is necessary to draw the attention of the pediatrician.

Growth, the value of which is in red zone (97th centile) testifies togrowth pathology.In this situation, it is necessary to consult with the appropriate specialists: pediatrician, therapist, endocrinologist.

How to use the table?

First in the table Growth we find our age in the left column and in the found line we look for the height corresponding to our height.

• If the cell is blue, the average indicator is ideal, if it is green, it is not ideal, but the growth indicator is normal.

• If the cell is blue, the average indicator is ideal, if it is green, it is not ideal, but the weight indicator is normal.
• If the cell is yellow, it means "there is a tendency to lead or lag" and it would be good to consult an endocrinologist. If - red, it is simply necessary to go to the endocrinologist.

NOT ALL. Now we need to see if the growth indicator corresponds to the weight indicator. And bring the weight into line.

Table of changes in height and weight of a child from 13 to 14 years old

(Anthropometric (centile) tables)

Height of boys from 13 to 14 years (cm)

Age	Index
	Very short	short	below middle	average	higher middle	high	Very high
		141,8-145,7	145,7-149,8	149,8-160,6	160,6-166,0	166,0-170,7	>170,7
		148,3-152,3	152,3-156,2	156,2-167,7	167,7-172,0	172,0-176,7	>176,7

Very

short

short

below

middle

average

higher

middle

high

Very

high

30,9-33,8

33,8-38,0

38,0-50,6

50,6-56,8

56,8-66,0

>66,0

34,3-38,0

38,0-42,8

42,8-56,6

56,6-63,4

32,0-38,7

38,7-43,0

43,0-52,5

52,5-59,0

59,0-69,0

>69,0

37,6-43,8

43,8-48,2

48,2-58,0

58,0-64,0

64,0-72,2

Human morphology is one of the main sections of anthropology that studies the physical organization of a modern person, the patterns of variability of the human body in time and space, as well as variations in its individual parts. The main content of human morphology is connected with the problems of age and constitutional anthropology. The subject of the study of human morphology is the variability of shape and internal structure person. The data of human morphology are used in the doctrine of anthropogenesis, racial science, and applied anthropology.

Age anthropology explores the change in morphological and functional characteristics in the process of individual development of a person.

Constitutional anthropology studies variants of combinations of morphological, physiological and psychological parameters of organisms (constitution) found in modern man.

Fundamentals of age anthropology

One of the main concepts of age anthropology is ontogeny - a set of transformations undergone by the body from the moment of birth to the end of life. Man is a social being, but his life is subject to biological laws. Therefore, studying the course of various morphological, functional and psychological changes in ontogeny, the researcher must take into account the biological and social factors of human development.

The individual development of each person is subject to certain patterns.

1. Irreversibility. A person cannot come back to those features of the structure that appeared in him at the previous stages of ontogenesis.

2. Graduality. A person goes through a number of stages in the process of ontogenesis, the sequence of which is strictly defined. In normal development, skipping stages is impossible. For example, before permanent teeth are formed, milk teeth must appear and fall out; puberty always precedes the reproductive stage (the age of sexual activity).

3. Cyclicity. In humans, there are periods of activation and inhibition of growth. Growth is intense before birth, in the first months after it, at 6-7 years and at 11-14 years. An increase in body length occurs in the summer months, and weight in the fall.

4. Different times (heterochrony). Miscellaneous systems organisms mature at different times. At the beginning of ontogenesis, the most important and necessary systems mature. So, the brain reaches “adult” parameters by the age of 7-8.

5. Heredity. In the human body, there are genetic regulatory mechanisms that keep the processes of growth, development and aging within certain limits, neutralizing to a sufficient extent the impact of the environment.

6. Individuality. Each person is unique in terms of the features of the anatomical structure and the parameters of ontogenesis. This is due to the interaction of a unique genetic program and a specific habitat.

Periodization of individual development

The oldest periodizations of human development belong to ancient scientists. The oldest periodizations of human development belong to ancient scientists. The philosopher Pythagoras (VI century BC) identified four periods of human life: spring (up to 20 years), summer (20-40 years), autumn (40-60 years) and winter (60-80 years), corresponding to the formation , youth, flourishing and fading. The physician Hippocrates divided individual life into ten seven-year cycles.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian scientist N.P. Gundobin proposed a scheme of periods based on anatomical and physiological data. The German scientist S. Schwartz based his periodization on the intensity of body growth and the maturation of the gonads. In numerous modern schemes, from 3 to 15 periods in a person's life are distinguished.

When developing a scientifically based periodization of individual development, it is necessary to take into account the complex biological (morphological, physiological, biochemical), psychological and social aspects of human development and aging.

The scheme of age periodization of human ontogenesis, adopted at the VII All-Union Conference on the problems of age morphology, physiology and biochemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Moscow in 1965, has received wide application in science (Table 1).

Table 1. Scheme of age periodization of human ontogeny

	Age periods	Length of periods
	newborn
	Breast age	10 days - 1 year
	Early childhood
	First childhood
	Second childhood	8-12 years old (boys); 8-11 years old (girls)
	Adolescence	13-16 years old (boys); 12-15 years old (girls)
	adolescence	17-21 years old (boys); 16-20 years old (girls)
	Mature age:
		22-35 years old (men); 21-35 years old (women)
	II period	36-60 years old (men); 36-55 years (women)
	Elderly age	61-74 years (men); 56-74 years (women)
	Old age	75-90 years (men and women)
	Longevity	90 years and above

This periodization takes into account the patterns of formation of the organism and personality, relatively stable morphological and physiological characteristics of a person, as well as social factors associated with the education of children or the retirement of the elderly. Each stage of the age classification is characterized by a certain average level of morphophysiological development of the organism.

Characteristics of age periods

The prenatal phase plays an important role in the further development of a person. By 4 months of intrauterine development, the human fetus already has formed organs. Until this time, the formation of the embryo. The maximum growth rate of the fetus is just characteristic of the first four months after conception. Then there is a slower growth, the lowest growth rates occur in the interval from 8 to 10 months. After birth, the growth rate increases again.

newborn- the shortest stage of life. It is limited to the time of feeding the child with colostrum. Newborns are divided into full-term and premature. The prenatal development of the first lasts 39-40 weeks, and the second - 28-38 weeks. In addition to the timing of prenatal development, body weight is taken into account. Newborns with a body weight of 2500 g or more (with a body length of at least 45 cm) are considered full-term, and newborns with a body weight of less than 2500 g are considered premature. Currently, the body weight of full-term boys is most often 3400-3500 g, and girls 3250-3400 g, body length for both sexes is 50-51 cm. The size of newborns, like children of other ages, increases due to the acceleration process. Every sixth child is now born weighing over 4 kg. Full-term undernourished children with a body weight of 2550-2800 g and a length of 48-50 cm also deviate from the average.

Breast age lasts up to a year. At this time, the child gradually adapts to the external environment. This period is characterized by the greatest intensity of the growth process in comparison with all stages of life. So, the length of the body up to a year increases by almost 1.5 times, and the weight - by 3 times. In infants, both the absolute size of the body and their monthly increase are taken into account. Individual data are compared with standards. Babies grow faster during the first half of the year. Doubling of body weight occurs at 4 months. To assess the level of development of infants, the ratio of girths of the chest and head is important. In newborns, the girth of the head is larger than the chest, but then the chest begins to grow faster and overtakes the growth of the head. The girth of the chest becomes equal to the girth of the head at the age of two to three months. For infants, the timing of eruption of milk teeth is very important, which appear in a certain sequence: the central incisors erupt first - 6-8 months, then the lateral incisors - 8-12 months. The central incisors appear on the lower jaw earlier than on the upper, and the lateral incisors - vice versa. Indicators of the biological age of infants are also the closure of fontanelles on the head and psychomotor development. In the first month, the child begins to smile in response to the appeal of adults, at 4 months he steadily stands on his legs with outside help, at 6 months he tries to crawl, at 8 months he makes attempts to walk, by the year he walks without support.

Early childhood suitable for ages 1 to 3. During this period, there is a decrease in the increase in body size, especially after 2 years. One of the indicators of biological age is dental maturity. During early childhood, the first molars (at 12-15 months), fangs (at 16-20 months) and second molars (at 20-24 months) erupt. Children usually have all 20 milk teeth by the age of 2.

First childhood lasts from 4 to 7 years inclusive. Biological age during this period is estimated by somatic, dental and bone indicators. At 3 years of age, the length and weight of the body can predict the final dimensions that the individual will reach when his growth stops. A slight increase in growth rate at 4-7 years is called the first growth spurt. A characteristic feature of the period of the first childhood is the beginning of the change of milk teeth to permanent ones. On average, at the age of 6, the first permanent molars erupt, and in the lower jaw earlier than in the upper. In many children, this process occurs at 5 years of age, and in some children the first permanent tooth appears at 7 years of age and even between 7 and 8 years. In early childhood, the first incisors erupt, usually between the ages of six and seven. Then comes a 10-12-month rest period, after which the lateral incisors begin to appear. In 40-50% of urban children, these teeth erupt in the lower jaw by the age of 7, but basically this process occurs after the period of the first childhood.

When determining the dental age in the first childhood, both the timing of the eruption of permanent teeth and the total number of milk and permanent teeth are taken into account. The individual data of the child are compared with the standard. This allows you to judge the accelerated or slow development. In girls, permanent teeth erupt earlier than in boys. Bone age is determined by radiographs of the hand and elbow joint.

The age period from 1 year to 7 years is also called neutral childhood, since girls and boys of this age almost do not differ from each other in size and body shape.

If in neutral childhood the boundaries of age periods are the same for both sexes, then in the future they do not coincide, differing by 1 year. This is due to the fact that in girls the acceleration of anatomical development begins earlier, and later the process of puberty and growth ends earlier.

Second childhood lasts in boys from 8 to 12 years, and in girls - from 8 to 11 years. In both sexes, increased growth in length begins, but its rate is higher in girls, since the growth process is closely related to puberty, which begins in the female 2 years earlier than in the male. Already at the age of 10, girls overtake boys in terms of the main body sizes. In girls, the lower limbs grow faster, the skeleton becomes more massive. During this period, the secretion of sex hormones increases, especially in girls. In boys, the external genitalia begin to grow. In both sexes, secondary sexual characteristics appear during this period.

Adolescence lasts for boys from 13 to 16 years, and for girls - from 12 to 15 years. This is a period of intense puberty, the phases of which do not coincide in time for males and females. Rapid maturation occurs in girls at the beginning of adolescence, and in boys - in its middle. Adolescence is characterized by a puberty growth jump in body size. At the same time, in girls, the maximum increase in body length occurs at the age of 11 to 12 years, that is, even in the second childhood, but a jump in body weight is observed in them in adolescence between 12 and 13 years old. In boys, these maxima of growth rates appear between 13-14 and 14-15 years, respectively. The maximum body growth in boys is so great that at 13.5-14 years old they already surpass girls in body length, and in the future this difference increases. By the end of adolescence, growth almost stops.

Youth period- the final one for a growing organism. It lasts for boys from 18 to 21 years old, and for girls from 17 to 20 years old. At this age, the processes of growth and formation of the body end.

Puberty. Puberty coincides with adolescence and adolescence, during which a radical biochemical, physiological, morphological and neuropsychic restructuring of the body occurs. As a result of this process, the biological and intellectual characteristics of an adult are formed, including the achievement of puberty (the ability to reproduce). The development of the reproductive system is combined with significant morphological and functional changes in all organs and systems of the body. The unity of the formation of the body is manifested in the fact that, under the influence of the endocrine system, secondary sexual characteristics and body size harmoniously develop. Secondary sexual characteristics include the size and shape of the body, intensive development of muscles in the male, tertiary hairline, swelling of the nipples, breaking of the voice, development of the Adam's apple, wet dreams in boys, mammary glands and menstruation in girls. The development of each sexual characteristic goes through certain stages. Secondary sexual characteristics appear in a certain sequence. The terms of puberty of individuals and groups of people differ, due to genetic characteristics, ethnicity, environmental conditions. Currently, in industrialized countries, puberty in girls begins at 8-9 years old, in boys - at 10-11 years old, and ends at 16-18 years old and 18-20 years old, respectively. The length of the period may vary.

The age of puberty is also known as puberty, which is considered as an age crisis. The organism develops intensively, but different organs mature unevenly. This happens against the backdrop of increased metabolism. As a result of this discrepancy, diseases of the cardiovascular system, as well as manifestations of mental illness, can develop and worsen.

The psychology of a teenager in adolescence is very characteristic. Further development of the central nervous system, endocrine restructuring, the change in the predominant functioning of some endocrine glands by others affect the entire mental sphere of the adolescent and his behavior. The increased activity of the thyroid and gonads increases the excitability of the higher parts of the central nervous system, and therefore the teenager is easily excitable and sometimes rude, there is absent-mindedness, a temporary decrease in efficiency, a decrease in self-requirements, a weakening of the will. During this period, there is an increased sensitivity, masked by deliberate rudeness and swagger.

Mature age. Age-related variability in adults passes at different speeds, its pace is influenced by many factors. In adults, there are almost no clear criteria for assessing biological age due to the time difference between the age dynamics of various body systems. Of all the manifestations of age-related variability in adults, first of all, primary specific processes develop at the molecular level, causing energy and structural changes in the body. There is evidence that after 28-29 years, the deep properties of cells change. The earliest sign of aging is a decrease in the number of active brain neurons, which begins at the age of 15-16, and in the cerebral cortex - from 30 years. Therefore, the body's resistance to harmful influences gradually decreases. Already from the age of 27-29, the overall level of metabolic processes decreases, and by the age of 100, metabolic processes account for only 50% of their level at 30 years. So, all body functions are characterized by a maximum intensity at the age of 20-25 years. Immediately after the end of growth and development, changes begin in the immune system, in the body's ability to resist diseases. With age, there is a violation of all immune functions. Significant changes occur in the endocrine system: the concentration of gonadal hormones in the blood decreases, the functions of the thyroid, thymus, and adrenal glands decrease. These primary changes lead to visible secondary changes: atrophy of the integument, lethargy, flabbiness, wrinkling of the skin, graying and hair loss, reduction in muscle volume and tone, and limited mobility in the joints. Limitation of the volume of physical activity begins at the age of 40, but is especially pronounced at the age of 70.

Changes occurring in adipose tissue are very important. Fat is an energy accumulator. Energy is balanced if the energy coming from food is completely wasted. In this case, the person will have a stable weight - the system is in dynamic balance, which is an indicator of health. The age-related increase in the amount of fat occurs as a result of a decrease in motor activity and as a result of an increase in the sensitivity threshold of adipose tissue to the regulation of its hormonal factors. With age, carbohydrate metabolism is disturbed, food glucose turns into lipids, which are not used in the proper amount for energy needs. Energy aging begins at age 30. At the age of 20-25 years, the ideal weight for this person is observed. By the age of 30, it becomes more by 3-4 kg. After 45-48 years, the fat supply becomes inert in relation to metabolic processes. The more intense the weight increases, the more intense the age-related processes proceed. In men, obesity begins earlier than in women (after 34-35 years). But diseases caused by obesity (atherosclerosis, diabetes, gout, liver and kidney disease) are more pronounced in women. Biological age in adults is determined by the following indicators: lung capacity, blood pressure, pulse rate, blood cholesterol levels, arm muscle strength, visual acuity, hormone levels in biological fluids, joint mobility, number of healed teeth and a number of psychomotor qualities.

Age-related changes in the nervous system and psyche

The dynamics of the main nervous processes in connection with age consists in the weakening of the processes of inhibition, the loss of mobility - the lability of reactions, the increase in the threshold of excitability, the decrease in hearing, vision, etc. By the age of 70, an insufficient concentration of nervous processes begins to be noted, in many cases leading to an unbalanced personality. Age-related changes in the psyche are more pronounced in women. Old age is characterized by people with an unbalanced mental warehouse and introverts. Biological age in the mental sphere can be assessed by the presence of interest in external events, the desire for vigorous activity, and the preservation of social contacts.

Age-related changes in the skeletal system are determined by examining radiographs of the hand. Relatively rapid bone aging is characteristic of obese people with a lot of weight, slow - thin and mobile. The peoples of the North are characterized by rapid changes in the bones of the hand, while the peoples of Central Asia are characterized by a slow pace of such changes. The slowest pace is observed among long-livers of Abkhazia. In women of Abkhazia, even at the age of 50-60, there are “young” variants of the structure of the hand.

The critical period for the human body is menopause. Climax- this is the age period between the onset of impaired reproductive function and its final cessation. Menopause in both sexes is based on age-related changes in the hormonal system. At this time, radical transformations take place in the entire endocrine complex, a new equilibrium state of the endocrine glands arises. The onset of menopause indicates an increase in general regressive processes in the body. The period of menopausal syndrome is most pronounced in women. In addition to menstrual dysfunction, menopause is accompanied by abnormalities in the work of the cardiovascular, neuropsychic and other systems. In women, menopause lasts about 2-8 years, after which menopause occurs. On the eve of menopause and during it, women increase their appetite, decrease mobility, and increase weight. Often during this period, diabetes, hypertension and other diseases associated with metabolic disorders begin. Now average age menopause increases, approaching the age of 50 in civilized countries. In the male body, the reproductive function is not interrupted as sharply as in the female, however, the characteristic age-related phenomena in the metabolism and the endocrine complex as a whole do not fundamentally differ in both sexes. With aging, men also tend to increase body weight, the appearance of deviations in the work of the cardiovascular system, in the mental sphere. Menopause in men is more extended in time and can last 10-15 years.

Old age correlates with the passport age of 56-74 years for men and 61-71 years for women. It is characterized by a gradual decrease in the level of physiological functions of the body.

Old age- the final stage of ontogeny. Aging is a set of biological processes that occur in the organs and systems of the body due to age, which reduce the adaptive capacity of the body and increase the likelihood of death. In old age, as well as in maturity, the degree of age-related changes often does not correspond to the passport age, and the pace of these changes is different. Currently, there are two main groups of theories of aging. The first is based on the assumption that aging is a consequence of the accumulation over time of random errors in the body's genome (mutations, DNA breaks, chromosome damage), which affects all the main functions of the body. Consequently, aging as a separate stage of ontogeny is not fatally programmed into human heredity.

The second group of aging theories is based on the assumption of the existence of a programmed aging process. According to these theories, the organism ages as an integral, complexly regulated system. The accumulation of errors in the genome is already considered as a consequence, and not as a cause of aging. In this case, the optimal life span is genetically determined and controlled by a special gene complex. Now special temporary genes have been discovered that stimulate the appearance of structural and functional traits at various stages of ontogeny, that is, they determine the pace of life processes. Thus, a certain rhythm is created for the activation of gene-regulatory mechanisms that determine the features of the late stages of ontogenesis. The slower and more smoothly this mechanism works, the more likely it is to achieve a longer lifespan. There are other points of view. So, for example, it is believed that old age is not a function of time, but is a natural dysregulation in the body through a violation of the basic functional homeostasis.

I.I. Mechnikov at the beginning of the 20th century formulated the concept of old age, according to which old age is a pathology resulting from the gradually accumulating self-poisoning of the body by bacterial poisons that usually live in the intestines. He believed that the aging process could be slowed down by replacing the intestinal flora with lactic acid bacilli.

External changes in old age include: a decrease in height (by an average of 0.5 - 1 cm for each five years after 60 years), a change in the shape and composition of the body, smoothing of contours, increased kyphosis, an accelerated decrease in the muscle component, a redistribution of the fat component, a decrease in amplitude movements of the chest, a decrease in the size of the face due to the loss of teeth and reduction of the alveolar processes of the jaws, an increase in the volume of the brain part of the skull, the width of the nose and mouth, thinning of the lips, a decrease in the number of sebaceous glands, the thickness of the epidermis and papillary layer of the skin, graying.

TO age-related changes The central nervous system includes a decrease in brain mass, the size and density of neurons, the deposition of lipofuscin, a decrease in the efficiency of a nerve cell, changes in the EEG, a decrease in the level of bioelectrical activity, a decrease in visual acuity, accommodative ability of the eye and hearing, a decrease in taste and some types of skin sensitivity.

In old age, there is a slowdown and decrease in protein biosynthesis, the ratio of lipid fractions changes, tolerance to carbohydrates and insulin availability of the body decreases; the secretion of the digestive glands decreases; the vital capacity of the lungs decreases; reduced basic renal function; the contractility of the myocardium decreases, systolic pressure rises, the rhythmic activity of the heart slows down; there are shifts in the proteinogram; the number of platelets, the intensity of hematopoiesis, hemoglobin decreases, a decrease in humoral and cellular immunity is observed.

Changes at the cellular and molecular levels, as well as in the system of the genetic apparatus include: the extinction of the functional activity of cells and genes, changes in membrane permeability, a decrease in the level of DNA methylation, an increase in the proportion of inactive chromatin, and an increase in the frequency of chromosomal disorders.

However, the aging process is internally contradictory, since in the course of it not only degradation, disintegration, and a decrease in functions occur, but also important adaptive mechanisms are mobilized, that is, compensatory-senile processes are deployed ( vitaukt). For example, a decrease in the level of secretion of certain hormones is compensated by an increase in the sensitivity of cells to their action; under conditions of death of some cells, the functions of others are enhanced.

The rate of aging depends on the environment. Thus, the urban lifestyle determines the rapid pace of aging. Decrease in mobility in the absence of restrictions in food, frequent negative emotions affect. The rate of aging is influenced by occupational hygiene, mental activity hygiene, rest hygiene, and the degree of social contacts.

Gerontologists use the following parameters to determine biological age: body weight, blood pressure, cholesterol and glucose levels in the blood, the degree of development of stoop, skin wrinkling, visual acuity and hearing, hand dynamometry, joint mobility, data from some psychomotor tests, memory loss.

It should be noted that currently there is an increase in the average life expectancy and the associated redistribution of the age composition of the Homo sapiens population. The indicator of the level of "demographic old age", that is, the proportion of people over 60 years old, in almost all economically developed countries exceeds 12%.

Longevity

Longevity is a manifestation of normal variability, in this case, the variability of life expectancy. Among mammals, there is a wide variety of species life expectancy: from 70-80 years in an elephant to 1-2 years in a mouse. Species lifespan in primates is closely correlated with the rate of aging (for example, the aging of the musculoskeletal system in the macaque proceeds three times faster than in humans). The species potential limit of human lifespan is genetically programmed as a fundamental biological quality of the species and is about 115-120 years. Human life expectancy is a biological phenomenon that depends on social factors. Individual life expectancy can range from newborn to 100 years or more. Population groups with increased longevity have been noted in Ecuador, Colombia, Pakistan, the USA, India, the North Caucasus, Transcaucasia, and Yakutia. There are many long-livers among Abkhazians who have relatively slow physical maturation and sexual development of children and adolescents, a relatively late age of marriage, smooth and slow aging, that is, a slow rate of ontogenesis. Abkhaz long-livers are distinguished by their inclination to constant and rhythmic physical labor, as a rule, until old age. Consciousness of its usefulness retains interest in life. The conditionality of longevity is associated with nutrition, which is characterized by low calorie content, optimal fat content, high content of vitamins and substances with anti-sclerotic properties. The national culture of the Abkhaz regulates the perception of stressful situations. The ideal body type for all ages among Abkhazians is thin.

Centenarians are distinguished in the psycho-neurological aspect by mild excitability, mobility and dynamism of mental reactions, only 20% of them showed a tendency to neurosis and psychosis. The personal attitude is optimistic. By temperament, most of them are sanguine, that is, people whose experiences are not of a protracted nature. These are people who are prone to pleasure, well adapted to their microenvironment, whose emotional life is intense and harmonious. Longevity is supposed to be inherited to some extent.



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Morphofunctional featureschildren of primary school age

Introduction

The dynamics of changes in morphological and functional indicators in ontogenesis is considered from the standpoint of one of the basic principles of biology - the unity of structure and function (Luriya A.R., 1975; Leontiev A.N., 1977; Kliorin A.I., 1996, etc.) . The level and harmony of physical and mental development in any age period reveal the dialectic of the relationship between the body and the environment, characterize the metabolic processes in the body, the balance of the endocrine and central nervous systems, the adequacy of physical education and intellectual spheres. Of particular interest is the problem of the interaction of structure and function in the growing body of a child. The term "growth" means an increase in the length, volume and weight of the body, associated with an increase in the number of cells and their number, and "development" - qualitative changes in the child's body, consisting in the complication of the structure and functions of all tissues and organs, the complication of their relationships and regulation processes. Gradual quantitative changes that occur during the growth of the organism lead to the appearance of new qualitative features in the child.

It is known from the literature that the individual characteristics of a child's development, in particular, the physiological mechanisms of regulation of functions, behavior and emotional states are associated with the age stages of a child's development (P.G. Svetlov, 1966; M.H. Borstein, 1989). At the same time, each child, regardless of age, has his own purely individual characteristics and his own functional reserves, which form the individual characteristics of adaptive behavior and adaptive transformations of visceral systems (N.A. Kornetov, 1990; V.I. Medvedev, 1998; Krivoshchekov et al. , 1998; N. N. Grebneva, 2001; S. I. Soroko, 2006).

The problem of the relationship between constitutional typology, regulation of functions and mental properties at different stages of ontogenesis deserves special attention (N.A. Kornetov, 1991; R.H. Rosenman, 1990). To date, material has been collected that indicates the presence of differences in a variety of physiological and biochemical parameters between adolescents of different somatotypes of the same sex and age (V.B. Rubanovich, R.I. Aizman, 2004; A.I. Kliorin, 1979, etc.) . In medicine, the human constitution can be a screening marker for a number of diseases. This is especially important when, in assessing the constitutional type, along with the external appearance and anthropometric characteristics, the features of the activity of the systems of regulators - the central and autonomic nervous systems - are taken into account.

It is assumed that the individual characteristics of the child, in particular the constitution and physiological characteristics of the regulation of functional systems, can affect behavior, emotional condition and anxiety (I.S. Kon, 2006; E.R. Slobodskaya, 2004; L.D. Tsaturyan, 2004). Although this problem is widely discussed, the question of the relationship and interdependence of individual typological features of the bodily constitution, vegetative mechanisms of regulation of functions and behavioral characteristics is poorly developed.

Target research - the study of the morphological and functional characteristics of the body of younger students.

In accordance with this goal, the following

WAdachasresearch:

Determine the type of somatic constitution in children of primary school age.

To identify gender differences in the types of somatic constitutions in younger students.

To study the features of the functional state of children of primary school age, taking into account the somatotype.

1. Literature review

1.1 Factors that determine adaptive capabilitiesjunior schoolchildren

The beginning of schooling is one of the most difficult periods in a child's life in psychological, social and physiological terms. The whole life of the child changes - new contacts, new living conditions, a fundamentally new type of activity, new requirements, etc.

It is on the basis learning activities the main psychological neoplasms of primary school age develop. Education pushes thinking into the center of the child's consciousness and becomes the dominant function, begins to determine the work and all other functions of consciousness - they become intellectualized and become arbitrary.

Under the influence of the demands placed on the child, an intensified development of endurance (restraint) and patience begins as the basis of disciplined behavior, which gradually becomes familiar to the child. Thus, the younger student passes difficult period adaptation to new circumstances in his life.

A significant role in successful adaptation to school is played by the characterological and personal characteristics of children, which were formed at the previous stages of development. The ability to communicate with other people, to possess the necessary communication skills, an adequate self-assessment of one’s position, the ability to determine for oneself the optimal position in relations with others are extremely necessary for a child entering school, since learning activity, the situation of schooling as a whole is primarily of a collective nature. The lack of formation of such abilities or the presence of negative personal qualities give rise to typical communication problems, when a child is either actively, often with aggression, rejected by classmates, or simply ignored by them. In both cases, there is a deep experience of psychological discomfort, which has a clearly maladaptive meaning. Less pathogenic, but also fraught with negative consequences, is the situation of self-isolation, when the child does not experience normal needs or even avoids contact with other children.

The child's initial assessment of other children depends almost entirely on the opinion of the teacher, whose authority is unconditionally recognized by the students. lower grades. In order for students to quickly get used to the school environment, so that learning, and even being at school, ceases to be a stress factor for the child as soon as possible, it is necessary to create the maximum number of situations when children receive a kind of psychological “strokes”. It should be remembered that psychological adaptation takes place not only at the conscious level, located between the concepts of “I want - I don’t want”, “I need - I don’t”, but also at the cellular, functional level (N.V. Dubrovina et al., 2000; E .P. Ilyin, 2000).

The process of adapting a child to school is not only social adaptation, acquiring the skills of life in a team, the ability to comply with the regime of work and rest, submission to disciplinary requirements, it is also a physiological adaptation to the oxygen regime of the class, to maintaining a forced, sitting posture during forty-five minutes, accompanied by an immune restructuring caused by a foreign microflora released during breathing, during a conversation. During the lesson, the concentration of carbon dioxide increases and the oxygen content decreases, and children are sensitive to stuffiness: their efficiency decreases, headaches, dizziness may appear, they may become capricious, coordination of movements is disturbed, which primarily affects small movements when writing.

At the beginning of training, non-specific resistance decreases in children who are difficult to adapt, acute respiratory diseases are often detected, allergies, asthma attacks appear or increase, exacerbations of chronic diseases are noted.

Physiologically rational preparation for school and organization of the educational process on initial stage training should take into account the peculiarity of development at a given sensitive-critical age, which consists in the intensive maturation of structural and functional elements that determine the formation of arbitrary regulation of behavior, the formation of the foundations logical thinking, orientation to social norms and requirements.

The organism of a child of 7-10 years old is characterized by incomplete development of the central nervous system, visual, auditory analyzer, musculoskeletal system, insufficiently perfected endocrine and immune system. The difficulty of teaching a child of 7-10 years old is mainly due to the fact that in children of this age, the processes of excitation sharply prevail over the processes of internal inhibition, and it is difficult for children to concentrate and maintain attention (I.I. Sokovnya - Semenova, 1999).

Prolonged static and psycho-emotional stress in children of this age leads to a change in the mobility of nervous processes, a decrease in blood pressure, and provokes fainting conditions associated with impaired oxygen metabolism.

In children with intense activity, fatigue can develop quite quickly. On the one hand, fatigue is a protective mechanism against exhaustion of the body, but on the other hand, it is the first step towards overwork, disruption of the physiological balance. Overfatigue can quite quickly move from the initial stage to the stage of severe functional changes, manifested in a sharp decrease in mental and physical performance; neuropsychiatric disorders (sleep disturbance, fear, hysteria), vegetative disorders (cardiac arrhythmia, hypo- or hypertension), a decrease in the body's resistance to adverse environmental factors, including a decrease in immunity.

To prevent overwork at school, it is necessary to carry out a comprehensive socio-pedagogical and psycho-physiological monitoring of the compliance of the teaching load with the age and individual capabilities of the child, and strictly observe the hygienic regime of the school complex.

1 .2 Stages and levels of socio-psychological and physiological adaptation of first grade students

In the process of psychophysiological adaptation of the child to the initial period of schooling, 3 stages are distinguished:

1 - indicative, when in response to the whole complex of new influences associated with the beginning of systematic learning, almost all functional systems of the body respond with a violent reaction and significant stress.

2-unstable adaptation - at this stage, the body is looking for the best options for responding to learning activities in order to reduce the physiological "cost" of the learning process.

3 - the period of relatively stable adaptation - the most optimal variant of response to the load.

A.L. Wenger (1995) described three levels of socio-psychological adaptation when a child enters school.

High level of adaptation. The first grader has a positive attitude towards the school, perceives the requirements adequately, learns the educational material easily, deeply and completely; solves complex problems; diligent, carefully listens to the instructions and explanations of the teacher, carries out instructions without unnecessary control; shows great interest in independent work; prepares for all lessons; occupies a favorable position in the class.

Average level of adaptation. The first grader has a positive attitude towards the school, her attendance does not cause negative feelings; perceives educational material if the teacher presents it in detail and clearly; assimilates the main content of training programs; independently solves typical tasks; is concentrated only when he is busy with something interesting for him; performs public assignments in good faith; friends with many classmates.

Low level of adaptation. A first-grader has a negative or indifferent attitude towards school, complaints of ill health are not uncommon, a depressed mood dominates, there is a violation of discipline, the material explained by the teacher assimilates fragmentarily, independent work with a textbook is difficult, does not show interest when performing independent study tasks, prepares for lessons irregularly, needs constant monitoring, systematic reminders and incentives from the teacher and parents, retains efficiency and attention during extended pauses for rest, does not have close friends, knows names and surnames of only a part of classmates.

According to E.M. Alexandrovskaya (1988), L.A. Zhdanova (1996) and others, allocate complete, incomplete adaptation, maladaptation of first-graders.

Full adaptation occurs in most children (50%) during the first two months of training. Their educational activity is constantly expressed; they conscientiously fulfill all the requirements of the teacher, are friendly, quickly make friends.

Incomplete or unstable adaptation is observed in approximately 30% of children. In the initial period of education, first-graders of this group should undergo a significant behavioral restructuring, which requires a long time: in the first months of being at school, inadequate actions predominate - in the classroom, children draw, play, and do other things. During 3-4 months of training, a low level of mastery school curriculum accompanied by difficulties in relationships with teachers and classmates. In 14% of students, there is a lack of normal forms of socio-psychological adaptation, which manifests itself in limiting the ability to cope with their educational and social functions, in negative forms of behavior, and the appearance of negative emotions. During the school year, adaptation failures in the form of neurovegetative, neuropsychiatric disorders, an increase in respiratory morbidity and exacerbation of various chronic diseases are revealed in children of this group. Failure of adaptive processes in childhood can be the cause and at the same time early sign the development of pathology in subsequent age periods (L.A. Zhdanova, 1996).

The process of adaptation to school conditions and academic loads is reflected primarily in the functional state of the cardiovascular system, since it reflects the quantitative side of adaptive activity and the capabilities of the whole organism.

It is shown that in comparison with the preschool period in the 1st grade there is an increase in the number of children with unsatisfactory adaptation, and a significant trend towards a decrease in the number of schoolchildren with a state of overstrain of the vegetative regulation of the circulatory apparatus is detected after a year and a half of training (M.V. Antropova, 1983; E .M. Kazin et al., 2002).

The degree of success for learning in the 1st grade largely depends on the rate of biological development, determined by morphological features, allowing to differentiate mesosomatic, microsomatic and macrosomatic body types (E.M. Kazin et al., 1999).

The students who adapt most optimally to school have timely rates of development, mesosomatic body type and a high level of psychodynamic and neurodynamic indicators at the beginning of the school year; at the end of the school year, children with the optimal level of psychological and pedagogical readiness, as well as at the beginning of the year, have higher values ​​of memory, attention, simple visual-motor reaction, a lower level of anxiety compared to other groups, which causes more high academic performance and more favorable course of adaptation processes.

In children with the microsomatic type, there is a lag in physical development, as evidenced by the lower values ​​of height, weight, girth and latitudinal parameters, lung capacity, compared with the group of the mesosomatic type, and in schoolchildren with the macrosomatic type, the highest values ​​of anthropometric indicators are recorded, which indicates the acceleration of the physical development of children in this group.

Rapid fatigue, deterioration of health during the school year in first-graders with a microsomatic body type should be compensated by increasing the intake of protein, essential amino acids, vitamins A, D, microelements in the diet, and conducting corrective classes that develop cognitive functions. The success of the initial period of schooling is determined by the level of formation of the nervous system and the type of regulation of vegetative functions: in children who do not do enough in the learning process, lower values ​​of memory and attention are revealed, a lower severity of fine motor coordination is recorded, tension develops in the mechanisms of autonomic regulation according to the vagotonic type according to compared with first-graders with medium and high success.

In other words, in children with deviations in the rate of morphofunctional development, adaptation to learning is accompanied by much greater physiological and psycho-emotional costs of the body, which significantly increases the physiological "price" of learning (E.A. Anisova et al., 1999).

adaptive maladaptation junior school

1.3 Factors and criteria for school maladaptation

A wide medical and social problem, without the solution of which it is impossible to create all the necessary conditions for the harmonious formation of personality and the strengthening and preservation of the health of the younger generation, is the problem of school maladaptation.

School maladaptation is understood as “a certain set of signs indicating a discrepancy between the social, psychological and psychophysiological status of an individual with the requirements of the situation of schooling, the mastery of which for a number of reasons becomes difficult or sometimes impossible” (V.E. Kagan, 1995).

The criteria for the manifestation of school maladaptation include the following indicators:

Failure in learning is a “cognitive component” (V.V. Vostroknutov, 1995);

Systematic violation of behavior in the environment educational institution- "behavioral component" (I.A. Nevsky, 1994);

Violations of a personal nature - emotionally - personal attitude to learning - "personal component" (Sh.A. Amoneshvili, 1984; M.M. Lisina, 1986);

Psychosomatic health disorders - "health deviation".

The following are distinguished as obligate signs of school maladaptation: 1) manifestations of hypertensive syndrome and diencephalic-vegetative disorders of varying severity;

2) low mental performance;

3) a tendency to fluctuations in the tone of the nervous system and the body as a whole with changes in the external environment;

4) emotional instability (A.O. Drobinskaya, 1995).

One of the most significant groups of risk factors for the development of school maladaptation can be designated as "incorrect organization of the educational process and psycho-informational overload of schoolchildren." The inconsistency of teaching methods and technologies with the age and functional abilities of the child leads to a violation of the psychophysiological mechanisms for the formation of writing and reading skills, to excessive intensification of the educational process, the creation of stressful situations associated with constant time limits, the development of fatigue in a significant part of schoolchildren (on average, in 50% of children ).

The second most important group of risk factors for adaptation disorders, most psychologists consider the personality of the child and the violation of his emotional status, including psychological unpreparedness for school, emotional instability, high anxiety and rigidity, insufficient level of development of the motivational-need and volitional sphere, depression of schoolchildren.

Among the risk factors for school maladjustment, one should point out:

Violations caused by organic insufficiency of the central nervous system;

Psycho-emotional deprivation and insufficiency of family upbringing factors;

Dominance of left-lateral functional asymmetry;

The specifics of gender (sex) differences;

Lack of factors of social reinforcement and social support.

Depending on a certain stage of ontogeny, one or more basic risk factors for school maladaptation are singled out, while the rest are trigger (“triggering”), or accessory.

At the time of entering school and the initial period of education, the main causes of difficulties in adaptation are the unpreparedness of the child for school and manifestations of mental dysontogenesis.

During the transition from primary to secondary school for students, the problem of adaptation at the socio-psychological level becomes the most relevant - risk factors related to emotional-volitional disorders, behavioral disorders, as well as psychosomatic disorders in a teenager come to the fore.

As we approach the pubertal period of ontogenesis in children, the indicators of mental health: the number of affective disorders increases, anxiety grows, the number of somatic, vegetative and dyssomnic disorders increases, while the number of cerebrosthenic and psychoorganic syndromes decreases. As a rule, students with these syndromes, most likely, simply leave school, leaving at best for initial vocational training, at worst, they begin to actively become addicted to alcohol and use other psychoactive substances, which aggravates their functional state (I.L. Levina, 2002). Nine leading factors of maladjustment to the educational process of schoolchildren - adolescents were identified: 1) the level of self-esteem; 2) general school anxiety with the predominant role of experiences of fear of situations of testing knowledge and fear in relations with the teacher; 3) internal motivations (cognitive and self-expression); 4) external motives; 5) motivation to achieve success; 6) the productivity of mental performance; 7) fear of non-compliance with the expectations of others, 8) frustration of the need to achieve success; 9) motivation of schoolchildren's positions (V.A. Baronenko, E.N. Plaksina, 2002).

For high school students, significant factors for adaptation are the features of accentuations of character, temperament, the nature of interpersonal relationships, uncertainty about the future profession and career, etc.

The search for informative and objective socio-pedagogical and psychophysiological criteria of school maladjustment is extremely important, since it allows you to timely diagnose the state of neuropsychic health, find out the reasons for the failure of adaptation mechanisms and take appropriate corrective measures.

1.4 Interaction of external and internal factors of developmentat primary school age

The period of intensive qualitative structural and functional transformations is characterized by high plasticity and increased sensitivity to external influences and is assessed as a sensitive period of development. For different mental functions, these periods do not coincide.

The functional organization of the visual perception system undergoes significant changes from 3-4 to 6-7 years. The brain mechanisms that ensure voluntary regulation of functions change significantly from 7 to 9 years, which allows us to regard this period as particularly sensitive in the development of voluntary attention and voluntary activity.

A number of facts allow us to consider the beginning of primary school age as a critical stage of development. At the age of 7-8, the basic mechanisms of organization of all mental functions change, the tension of adaptation processes grows. The most important factor in the transition of the whole organism to another level of functioning is the formation at this age of the regulatory systems of the brain, the ascending influences of which mediate the selective systemic organization of mental processes, and the descending ones regulate the activity of all organs and systems. Another important factor determining the critical nature of this period of development is a sharp change in social conditions - the beginning of schooling (N.V. Dubrovinskaya, 2000).

Ensuring the correspondence of these two factors - internal morpho-functional and external socio-pedagogical - is necessary condition favorable overcoming of this critical period.

2 . Materials and methods of research

The object of the study were children of primary school age (grade 1) of secondary schools in the city of Kemerovo: 93, 94 and 99. In the amount of 74 people (42 boys and 32 girls). The age of the examined children was from 6 to 7 years. The survey was conducted in the morning.

2.1 Methodsanthropometric measurements

Anthropometric measurements allow obtaining objective data on important morphological parameters of the body - length, body weight, chest circumference and others. They are the basis of somatometric methods for studying the physical development of a person. The choice of anthropometric indicators is determined by the studied age group and the objectives of the survey.

When performing anthropometric measurements, a number of conditions were met:

The survey was conducted according to a unified methodology;

Without outerwear and shoes;

In the morning time;

on an empty stomach;

In a bright, warm room;

The same, periodically verified, tool.

Techniqueand measurements of long dimensions

Body length is measured with a wooden stadiometer. When measuring height while standing, the subject stood on the platform with his back to the vertical stand in the “at attention” position, while he touched the vertical stand with his heels, pelvis (sacrum region) and back (interscapular region). The head was in a position in which the lower edge of the orbit and the upper edge of the tragus of the auricle were in the same horizontal plane. Measurement accuracy - 0.5 cm.

Method for measuring girth dimensions

The girth dimensions of the body (circumference) were measured using a fabric centimeter tape (after a hundred examined, the fabric tape was replaced with a new one).

The girth (circumference) of the chest was measured in a pause, on inhalation and exhalation. The tape was applied along the lower corners of the shoulder blades and the upper edge of the fourth rib, i.e. along the lower edge of the areola circles in boys and girls or above the mammary glands (in girls). The difference in chest circumference values ​​at maximum inhalation and maximum exhalation is called chest excursion.

Method for measuring massbody

The body weight was measured on a Fairbanks medical balance. Weighing accuracy up to 50 g. The subject stood in the middle of the scale platform without shoes and outerwear.

2.2 Estimation methodologyki anthropometric measurements

The evaluation of the results of anthropometric measurements of the subjects was carried out using regional age-sex evaluation tables, which present the physiological norms of anthropometric parameters for a certain age and gender in a particular region.

The centile method was used to assess physical development. The essence of this method is to assess the indicators of physical development on centile scales. To develop centile scales, at least one hundred people (of each age and gender) are examined, then all the results of each of the signs (height, body weight, chest circumference) are arranged in ascending order and divided into 100 intervals (centiles). At the same time, the values ​​characteristic of half of healthy children of a given sex and age are taken as average or conditionally normal values ​​- in the range from the 25th to the 75th centile.

Usually, to characterize the distribution of a series for each sign of physical development in the evaluation centile scales, not all one hundred, but seven fixed centiles are given: 1st, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th and 97th 3rd or 6th: 3rd, 10th, 25th, 75th, 90th, and 97th (50th is not counted as averages are included from the 25th to the 75th centile).

Each of the fixed centiles is called a probability and is indicated as a percentage. So, the 3rd and 97th centiles are such values ​​of the studied trait, less than which it is observed in 3% of cases; the value of the trait is less than the 10th or greater than the 90th centile occurs in 10% of cases, and so on. The intervals between centile probabilities are called centile intervals or “corridors”, each of which corresponds to a certain level of physical development indicators. Depending on where this “corridor” is located, it is possible to formulate a value judgment and recommendations.

Evaluating each of the indicators separately on centile scales, we characterized the harmony of physical development. In the case when the difference between the "corridors" between any two of the three indicators does not exceed 1, we can talk about the harmony of development, if this difference is 2 - the development of the child is disharmonious, if the difference exceeds 3 or more - sharply disharmonious development.

Body Mass Index Methodology

To assess compliance with optimal weight and the risk of certain diseases, the so-called body mass index - “BMI” allows:

BMI= Weight (kg) / Height 2 (m)

BMI equal to 17-21 corresponds to the lowest predisposition to cardiovascular diseases;

BMI less than 25 - the lowest incidence of cancer.

A BMI greater than 23 is an indicator of an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Methodology for assessing body type

In recent years, the method of R.N. has been used to determine the type of somatic constitution in children. Dorokhov and I.I. Bahrakh, which is based on the use of the results of the study of indicators of physical development on centile scales. According to this scheme, the sum of points (numbers) of the “corridors” of centile scales is calculated when assessing individual indicators: body length, chest circumference and body weight. The sum of numbers up to 10 points corresponds to the microsomatic type, up to 15 points - mesosomatic type, 16-21 points - macrosomatic type.

The microsomatic type is characterized by low indicators of the main anthropometric indicators, the macrosomatic type is high, and the indicators for the mesosomatic type of constitution correspond to age and sex standards.

2.3 Method for studying heart rate variability

Heart rate (HR) is determined by the property of automatism, i.e. the ability of the cells of the conduction system of the heart to spontaneously activate and cause myocardial contraction. The regulation of the heart rate is carried out by the autonomic, central nervous system, a number of humoral effects, as well as due to impulses that arise in response to irritation of various intero- and exteroreceptors.

Mathematical analysis of HRV makes it possible to draw a conclusion about the state of the sinus node activity control systems. At the same time, the sinus node is considered not only in the aspect of automatism of the heart, but also as an indicator of the activity of higher levels of control. The dynamic series of values ​​of the duration of the cardiac cycle can be represented by various mathematical models. The simplest and most accessible is the time analysis. For its implementation, in accordance with the Standards (1994), the parameter RR-interval (normal-to-normal) is introduced, which is defined as all the intervals between successive QRS complexes caused by depolarization of the sinus node. Temporal analysis is carried out by statistical (when studying rhythmocardiogram) and graphic (for analyzing a variational pulsogram (histogram) methods. Statistical methods are divided into two groups: obtained by direct measurement of R-R intervals and obtained by comparing various R-R intervals. Frequency indicators are studied by the method of spectral analysis.

Mode (Mo) - the most common values ​​of the RR-interval, which correspond to the most probable level of functioning of the regulatory systems for a given period of time.

Mode amplitude (AMo) - proportion of cardiointervals corresponding to the mode value. The physiological meaning of these parameters is that they reflect the influence of the central regulatory circuit on the autonomic (AMo) and humoral (Mo) channels.

Variation range (DH) - the difference between the duration of the largest and smallest R-R interval. This is an indicator of the activity of the autonomic regulation of the heart rhythm, which is entirely associated with respiratory fluctuations in the tone of the vagus nerves.

The tension index (TI) according to R. Baevsky characterizes the tension of the central regulatory systems and gives an idea of ​​the balance of the nervous and humoral factors that ensure the adaptive behavior of the cardiovascular system. Calculated according to the formula:

INB \u003d AMo / (2 Mo-DX), Where

AMo - mode amplitude in the histogram R-R distributions intervals; Mo - distribution mode; D X - scatter R-R values intervals.

A functional orthostatic test was used to assess the functional reserves of the heart and autonomic regulation. A change in body position is accompanied by a significant deposition of blood in the lower half of the body, resulting in a decrease in venous return of blood to the heart. In response to this unfavorable situation, the body reacts with a complex of compensatory-adaptive reactions aimed at maintaining the minute volume of blood circulation, primarily by increasing the heart rate.

Physiological reactions to the orthotest, manifested in the structure of the heart rate, give an idea of ​​the orthostatic stability of the body and the possibilities of autonomic regulation of the cardiovascular system during exercise. A change in the heart rhythm during orthostatic reactions makes it possible to judge the state of the mechanisms of regulation of the heart in the norm and to identify changes associated with initial disturbances in its activity.

To analyze the heart rate, 420 cardiocycles (R-R intervals) are recorded, 210 in a state of relative rest (lying down), 210 - standing with registration of the transition period.

Based on the calculated values ​​of the described indicators, diagnostic conclusions are formed.

First, a conclusion is made about the initial tone of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Depending on the values ​​of AMo, DH, IN, 10 possible conclusions are issued:

Normal ANS tone (eutonia).

A sharp increase in the tone of the sympathetic division of the ANS.

A sharp increase in the tone of the parasympathetic division of the ANS.

A slight increase in the tone of the parasympathetic division of the ANS.

A slight increase in the tone of the sympathetic division of the ANS.

Simultaneous increase in the tone of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS.

Simultaneous decrease in the tone of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS.

An increase in the tone of the parasympathetic division of the ANS against the background of a slight decrease in the activity of the sympathetic division of the ANS.

An increase in the tone of the sympathetic division of the ANS against the background of a slight decrease in the activity of the parasympathetic division of the ANS.

Decreased activity of the sympathetic division of the ANS with normal tone of the parasympathetic division.

Then, the tension of regulatory systems is determined based on the assessment of the degree of activity of various circuits of SR regulation at rest. The ratio of the activity indices of the autonomous and central circuits can be in the form of 7 possible options:

Optimal functioning of SR regulation systems.

Moderate tension of the SR regulation systems (with Ia not exceeding the norm).

Moderate tension of regulation systems (when Ia is more than the established norm).

Significant tension of the SR regulation systems.

The tension of the regulation systems according to the sympathetic-asthenic type.

The tension of the regulation systems according to the vagoasthenic type.

Sharp tension of regulation systems.

Very important information about the functional state of the cardiovascular system and the range of its adaptation to loads is given by the characteristics of transient processes when changing body position (orthoprobes).

normal transition process. Adequate response of the cardiovascular system to orthoprobe.

Decrease in the first phase during the normal second phase of the transient. Decreased response of the heart to orthoprobe.

Reduction of the second phase during the normal first phase of the transient. Decreased response of vascular tone to orthoprobe.

Reduction of the first and second phases of the transient process. Decreased response of the cardiovascular system to orthoprobe.

In the future, the functional capabilities of the ANS are evaluated, changes in the indicators of IN, AMo, and DH during the orthoclinostatic load test are taken as the basis. Three variants of vegetative reactivity are issued depending on the ratio of heart rate 2 / heart rate 1.

Normal reaction of ANS to orthoprobe.

Hypersympathicotonic reaction of the ANS to the orthoprobe.

Asympathicotonic reaction of ANS to orthoprobe.

A conclusion is made in one of three types about the vegetative support of activity (AMO 2 / AMO 1, HH 2 / HH 1):

The vegetative supply of the body is normal (sufficient).

The vegetative supply of the body is excessive.

The vegetative supply of the body is insufficient.

General conclusion about the functional state of the organism.

When diagnosing the functional state of the heart and the body as a whole, the results of diagnosing the state of the ANS at rest and orthostasis, the state of the HR regulation systems, the nature of the transient process and the conclusion about the presence and absence of extrasystole are used.

One of 7 types of possible conclusions is reported:

Sufficient functional capabilities of the body, optimal functioning of regulatory systems.

The state of minimum stress with optimal functioning of regulation systems.

Increased consumption of functional reserves of the body. Insignificant tension of adaptation mechanisms.

Decreased functional reserves of the body. Moderate tension of adaptation mechanisms.

A pronounced decrease in the functional reserves of the body. Significant strain on adaptation mechanisms.

Significant decline functionality organism. Poor adaptation.

7. A sharp decrease in the functionality of the body. Failure of adaptation. The presence of the disease in a subcompensated or decompensated state is possible.

3. Research results and discussion

The results were analyzed using the program "Statistics 6.0". The distribution of independent variables in each class showed that there is a normal distribution according to the Kolmogorov criterion.

When assessing physical development, body weight is one of the main and very labile indicators that quickly react and change under the influence of various exogenous and endogenous factors. Body weight in total reflects the development of the musculoskeletal system, subcutaneous fat layer and internal organs.

Assessing the harmony of physical development, it was found that 55% of the surveyed first graders do not have deviations from the age and sex norm in terms of body weight, 30% of children are underweight and 15% are overweight (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Percentage distribution of younger schoolchildren by body weight

Comparing the value of the body mass index in boys and girls, certain differences in the distribution were revealed (Fig. 2). Almost the same number of boys and girls have a body weight corresponding to age and sex. In the underweight group, boys predominate by 2 times, and with excess body weight, there are almost seven times more girls.

Figure 2. Percentage distribution of female and male primary school students by body weight

Body length is an integral indicator that changes during life, depending on the rate of growth and development of individual bones. The growth of children is one of the important indicators in assessing the biological age. Therefore, the next studied anthropometric indicator was growth. After evaluating the growth rates of first-graders, we came to the following conclusions: 53% of children have growth rates corresponding to the norm, 40% have accelerated growth rates, and 7% have growth retardation.

Figure 3. Percentage distribution of primary school students by growth rate

Comparing the selected groups in terms of growth rates in boys and girls, we can conclude that a greater number of girls of primary school age have normal and slow growth rates, unlike boys who have no slow growth rates at all and accelerated growth rates predominate (Fig. 4).

On the basis of the study, it can be concluded that first-graders tend to accelerate, a significant part of children have accelerated growth rates, as well as overweight.

At the next stage of the work, compliance with the optimal weight and the risk of certain diseases (body mass index) was assessed (Fig. 5).

The results show that 94% of the examined children have the least predisposition to cardiovascular diseases, and only 6% of all schoolchildren are characterized by an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. All surveyed younger schoolchildren have the lowest predisposition to cancer in terms of body mass index.

Figure 4. Percentage distribution of female and male primary school students by growth rate

Figure 5. Percentage distribution by body mass index

If we compare the results of this index in girls and boys, we can see that the percentage of girls with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases is slightly higher than that of boys (Fig. 6).

Figure 6. Percentage distribution by predisposition to cardiovascular diseases in boys and girls of primary school age

When distributing the entire sample into types of somatic constitution, the following percentage is observed: the number of schoolchildren with the microsomatic type is 22%, with the mesosomatic type - 50%, and the macrosomatic type occurs in 28% of cases. An analysis of gender differences in the ratio of constitution types showed that in boys the distribution is almost the same as in the general sample, except that the macrosomatic type is 33%. In girls, the mesosomatic type of constitution prevails (53%), the microsomatic type occurs in 26% of cases and the macrosomatic type in 21% of the examined.

Thus, among the extreme types of constitution in boys, the macrosomatic type prevails, and in girls the microsomatic type of constitution.

When analyzing the value of the stress index (SI), we noticed that the individual values ​​of SI in the sample vary from 17 to 496 arb. units, which indicates pronounced differences in the balance of autonomic regulation (from vagotonics to sympathotonics) in individual children.

When divided into types of somatic constitution, the following features of the activity of the cardiovascular system and indicators of autonomic regulation are revealed (Table 1).

Table 1. Indicators of the functional state, taking into account the somatotype

Lower values ​​of the stress index and heart rate are observed in the group of schoolchildren with mesosomatic body type. In groups of micro- and macrosomatic types, these indicators are higher, which may indicate the inclusion of the central circuit of regulation, a shift in the balance of activity of the autonomic nervous system towards the predominance of the sympathetic level of regulation. Such a balance shift, on the one hand, stimulates the work of the heart and enhances metabolic and energy processes, but, on the other hand, makes the oxygen transport systems (respiration, blood circulation) work with increased load. These somatotypes are characterized by the predominance of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. In schoolchildren with a mesosomatic somatotype, a balanced influence of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system is observed.

conclusions

1. First-graders tend to accelerate, a significant part of children have accelerated growth rates, as well as overweight.

2. According to the body mass index, girls of primary school age have a slightly higher risk of cardiovascular disease than boys.

3. The number of schoolchildren with the microsomatic type is 22%, with the mesosomatic type - 50%, and the macrosomatic type occurs in 28% of cases. In boys, the macrosomatic type prevails, and in girls, the microsomatic type of constitution.

4. For micro- and macrosomatic types, the predominance of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system is characteristic. In schoolchildren with a mesosomatic somatotype, a balanced influence of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system is observed.

Bibliography

1. Adaptation of the organism of students to educational and physical loads / Khripkova A.G. [and others] - M.: Pedagogy, 1982. - 240 p.

2. Bezrukikh M.M. The system of school education and the health of students: Proceedings. report "Education and health", IV All-Russian scientific and practical. conf. - Kaluga, 1998. - S. 30-31.

3. Berezin F.B. Mental and psychophysiological adaptation of a person. - L.: Nauka, 1988. - 269 p.

4. Beteleva T.G. Neurophysiological mechanisms of visual perception. - M.: Nauka, 1983. - 174 p.

5. Danilova N.N. Psychophysiology. - M.: Aspect Press, 1998. - 373 p.

6. Dubrovinskaya A.N. Neurophysiological mechanisms of attention. - L.: Nauka, 1985. - 144 p.

7. Dubrovinskaya, N.V. Psychophysiology of the child / Dubrovinskaya N.V. Farber D.A., Bezrukikh M.M. - M.: Vlados, 2000. - 144 p.

8. Zakharov Yu.A., Kasatkina N.E., Nevzorov B.P., Churekova T.M. Regional Center for Lifelong Education of Kemerovo state university. - Kemerovo: Kuzbassvuzizdat, 2001. - S. 273.

9. Kazin E.M., Ivanov V.I., Litvinova N.A., et al. Influence of psychophysiological potential on adaptation to educational activity, 2002. - V.28. - No. 3. - S. 23-29.

10. Kazin E.M., Lurie S.B., Zakharov Yu.A. et al. Adaptation and health - Kemerovo: Kuzbassvuzizdat, 2003. - 301 p.

11. Craig G. Psychology of development. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002. - 992 p.

12. Kaznacheev V.P., Strigin V.M. The problem of human adaptation. Some results and prospects of the study. - Novosibirsk, 1978. - 56 p.

13. Luria A.R. Fundamentals of neuropsychology. - M.: MGU, 1973. - 192 p.

14. Lurie S.B. Neuroendocrine mechanisms of modification of metabolic functions under the influence of influences in early ontogenesis: Dis.... Dr. Biol. Sciences. - Kemerovo, 1994. - 325 p.

15. Medvedev V.I. Components of the adaptation process. - L.: Nauka, 1984. - 108 p.

16. Meyerson F.Z. Physiology of adaptation processes. - M.: Nauka, 1986. - 639 p.

17. Sapego A.V. Influence of factors of early ontogenesis on the psychophysiological characteristics of children of 8 years of age: Author's abstract .... cand. biol. Sciences. - Novosibirsk, 1998. - 26 p.

18. Slonim A.D. environment and behaviour. Formation of adaptive behavior. - L.: Nauka, 1976. - 211 p.

19. Shmalgauzen I.I. Problems of human adaptation // Vest. USSR AMS. - 1975. - No. 10. - S. 5-16.

20. Yanitsky M.S. Adaptation process: psychological mechanisms and patterns of dynamics. - Kemerovo, 1999. - 83 p.

21. Yamburg E.A. School for everyone. - M., 1997. - 346 p.

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Hygiene of children and adolescents is a branch of preventive medicine that studies the influence of environmental factors and activities of children on the health and functional state of a growing organism and develops scientific foundations and preventive recommendations to ensure optimal growth and favorable development of the child population.

The main task of the hygiene of children and adolescents is the purposeful beneficial effect of the environment and education on the formation of a healthy person, improving his functional and physical capabilities.

The WHO European Strategy for Child and Adolescent Health and Development (2005) states: “Children are our investment in the society of the future. Their health and how we ensure their growth and development, from adolescence to adulthood, will determine the level of prosperity and stability in the countries of the European Region in the coming decades.”

10.1. Children's health status

AND TEENAGERS AT THE PRESENT STAGE

The growth and development of children, their state of health are of great social and medical importance, as they serve as a serious indicator of the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population as a whole.

The study of the growth and development of children in changing socio-economic conditions is one of the key problems of hygiene in children and adolescents at the present stage.

The general biological significance of growth is to achieve such a level of development of the organism that is necessary for the reproductive, intellectual and social perfection of man. Growth and development are usually used as identical concepts, continuously interconnected. Meanwhile, their biological nature and mechanisms are different.

Growth processes lead to the appearance of quantitative differences in the structures and functions of a developing organism, while development processes cause a qualitative transformation in the morphological structure and organization of the activity of physiological systems.

In cases where growth processes occur simultaneously in many different tissues of the body, they speak of the phenomenon of so-called growth spurts.

In human postnatal ontogenesis, such jumps are most pronounced. in the first year of life(1.5-fold increase in length and 3-4-fold increase in body weight per year, growth mainly due to the trunk), at the age of 5-6 years(the so-called half-height jump, as a result of which the child reaches approximately 70% of the adult's body length, growth is mainly due to elongation of the limbs); and also in 13-15 years old(pubertal growth spurt due to lengthening of the trunk and limbs).

As a result of each growth spurt, body proportions change significantly, more and more approaching adults. In addition, quantitative changes are necessarily accompanied by qualitative changes in the functioning of the most important physiological systems, which must "tune in" to work in a new morphological situation.

The alternation of periods of growth and differentiation serves as a natural biological marker of the stages of age development, at each of which the organism has specific features that never occur in the same combination at any of the other stages.

Thus, the processes of growth and development of the child's body proceed in accordance with objectively existing patterns, including:

Uneven rate of growth and development;

Non-simultaneous growth and development of individual organs and systems (heterochronism);

Conditionality of growth and development by sex (sexual dimorphism);

Biological reliability of functional systems and the organism as a whole;

Determination of the process of growth and development by the factor of heredity;

Conditionality of growth and development by environmental factors;

An epochal trend and cyclicity of the processes of growth and development of the child population (secular trend, acceleration, retardation of growth and development).

Uneven rate of growth and development. The processes of growth and development proceed continuously, but their rate has a non-linear dependence on age. The younger the body, the more intense the processes of growth and development. This pattern is clearly confirmed by the indicators of daily energy consumption. In a child of 1-3 months, the daily energy consumption per 1 kg of body weight per day is 110-120 kcal, in a one-year-old - 90-100 kcal. In subsequent periods of life, the decrease in daily energy consumption continues and in an adult it is 35-40 kcal / kg of body weight per day. Changes in height, body weight, chest circumference, the development of individual organs and systems also occur unevenly. At the stage of maturation of children and adolescents, some individual developmental features are also possible. Thus, there are individuals whose growth and development rates are accelerated or slowed down compared to normal rates. To clarify (correct) the level of development of children, the concept of biological and chronological age is used.

Chronological age- the period lived by the child from birth to the moment of the examination, which has a clear age limit (day, month, year).

biological age- a set of morphofunctional features of the body, depending on the individual rate of growth and development.

The main criteria of biological age are: the level of ossification of the skeleton, the timing of eruption and change of teeth, the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics, as well as morphological indicators of physical development (body length and its annual increase).

Determination of bone age is based on an X-ray examination: in infants - the humerus, in children from 1 to 13 years old - the wrist, over 13 years old - the elbow or hip joints. In girls, the processes of ossification occur earlier than in boys, with the greatest difference in puberty. Thus, the appearance of the ossification zone in the pisiform bone in girls is observed at the age of 11, in boys - at 12 years of age and is associated with the onset of activation of the gonadal function. Assessment of the level of ossification of the skeleton

carried out only in the presence of special medical indications: pronounced developmental disorders, specification of biological age, etc.

The degree of informativeness of indicators of the level of biological development is determined by the age of the child. From 6 to 12 years of age, the main indicators of development are the number of permanent teeth (“dental age”) and body length. After 11 years, the indicators of the annual increase in body length and the severity of secondary sexual characteristics are more informative.

Identification of extreme variants in the development of children and adolescents contributes to the early diagnosis of diseases and prenosological disorders, and their timely correction.

For students with a slow rate of the level of biological development, the tension of the visual and motor analyzers, deviations from the musculoskeletal system, nervous and cardiovascular systems are characteristic.

In schoolchildren with an accelerated pace of individual development, working capacity is reduced, indicators of the state of the immune system, there are more high levels general morbidity, functional deviations, including from the cardiovascular system in the form of hypertensive conditions.

Nonsimultaneous growth and development of individual organs and systems (heterochronism)

The explanation of this pattern was given by Academician P.K. Anokhin in the theory of systemogenesis, according to which selective and advanced maturation is provided by those structural formations and functions that determine the survival of the organism.

In the first years of life, the mass of the spinal cord and brain of the child increases significantly. In newborns, the brain weight is 25% of the weight of the adult brain, and body weight is only 5% of medium weight adults. By the age of 10, the weight of the brain of a child reaches 95%, and body weight - only 50% of the mass of an adult. The dimensions of the organs of hearing and vision reach the size of adults by the age of 4-5, and their growth practically stops. Lymphoid tissue grows differently: the maximum rate of its growth is observed in the pubertal period, followed by growth involution. Intensive development of the reproductive system begins only after 10-12 years. At

In this case, slowly developing body systems are more susceptible to adverse factors.

The ability of the child's body to specific activities, its resistance to various environmental factors are determined by the level of maturation of the corresponding functional systems. The problem of functional maturity, i.e. readiness for one or another type of education and upbringing becomes especially relevant at the turning points in a child’s life: the beginning of systematic education in general educational institutions and the choice of a profession by a teenager.

The hygienic significance of the problem of the functional maturity of a growing organism lies in the inability of functions that have not reached a certain level of maturity to adapt to new environmental factors.

Education at school for functionally "immature" children leads to a significant stress on the functional systems of their body (primarily nervous and cardiovascular), a decrease in nonspecific resistance, an unfavorable course of adaptation processes and a deterioration in health in general (Fig. 10.1). Functional immaturity of the brain structures is the cause of the difficulty in teaching first-graders, unstable performance, impaired concentration. According to official statistics, the number of children aged 6-7 who are not ready for systematic education currently exceeds 40%.

Based on the pattern of heterochronous development of the child's body, medical and psychophysiological criteria for school maturity have been developed.

Medical Criteria:

Level of biological development;

State of health at the time of examination;

Acute morbidity in the previous year. Psychophysiological criteria development of school-essential

The results of the Kern-Irasek test for 3 tasks: draw a little man, copy a phrase, draw a group of points;

The quality of sound pronunciation (the presence of speech defects);

The results of the motometric test "cutting a circle".

Rice. 10.1. Some indicators of the functional state of the body of modern first-graders and their peers in the mid-1970s. (Baranov A.A. et al., 2006)

The readiness of children for school is determined by doctors in 2 stages, during which the rehabilitation of preschool children and the correction of the development of school-required functions are provided.

Establishment of indicators of the functional readiness of the body of a teenager to the beginning vocational training allows you to determine professional suitability, which is assessed by the achieved level of biological development (compliance with the biological age of the passport), health status, the degree of development of psychophysiological, including professionally significant functions and qualities (see section 2.3).

The problem of functional maturity also refers to the nature and degree of physical activity - labor and sports (criteria for admission to certain sports, determining the minimum age for admission to independent work, etc.). Therefore, the heterochrony of the growth and development of individual organs and systems is the scientific basis for a differentiated

regulation of environmental factors and activities of children and adolescents.

Conditionality of growth and development by sex (sexual dimorphism)

Signs of sexual dimorphism most clearly begin to appear at puberty, i.e. associated with puberty, the period of a teenager's life.

At the 11th year of life, girls increase in longitudinal growth and, in terms of body length, they begin to overtake their peers. These changes coincide with the development of their secondary sexual characteristics. In boys, the increase in longitudinal growth and the rate of maturation of the reproductive system increase sharply at the age of 14-15. As a result of the pubertal growth spurt, they again overtake their peers in anthropometric indicators.

At the same time, there is an uneven rate of development of other functional systems, especially muscular, respiratory and cardiovascular. Thus, a rapid increase in the volume of the heart in girls begins and ends earlier than in boys (10-15 years). In young men, the increase in heart volume occurs less rapidly and continues until the age of 17-18.

The phenomenon of sexual dimorphism is taken into account when normalizing physical activity, organizing the educational process, and vocational guidance for schoolchildren.

Biological reliability of functional systems and the organism as a whole

This pattern is based on such properties of a living system as the redundancy of its elements, their duplication and interchangeability, the speed of return to relative constancy and the dynamism of individual links of the system. In the course of ontogenesis, the reliability of biological systems goes through certain stages of formation and formation. In the early stages of postnatal life, it is provided by a rigid genetically determined influence of individual elements of the functional system, which ensures the implementation of elementary reactions to external stimuli (for example, sucking). In the process of further growth and development, plastic connections are becoming increasingly important, creating conditions for the dynamic selective organization of the components of the system. This leads to the improvement of adaptive reactions

of a developing organism in the process of complicating its contacts with the external environment and the adaptive nature of functioning at each stage of ontogenesis. In accordance with this pattern, activity standards are developed on the basis of the age-sex principle and recommendations are given for the reasonable training of a growing organism in order to increase its reserve abilities and more fully use the mental and physical capabilities of the organism, laid down by nature.

Determination of the process of growth and development by factors of heredity

The processes of growth and development of the child are controlled by regulatory genes, the identification of which has become possible only in recent years.

In the embryonic and fetal periods, the functions of individual regulatory and structural genes are switched on, which leads to a change in the synthesis of proteins, lipoproteins at the time specified by the genetic program. Genes have become known that change their functions when cells or tissues reach certain stages of differentiation - the so-called chronogens. Chronogen mutations lead to deviations in the development of cell generations, which is manifested by premature or delayed differentiation. The analogues of these genes are the genes for switching protein synthesis, or switch genes. If any factors have caused a delay in the growth of the fetus before the period of gene switching, then the disturbed growth of the tissues of the child after birth is not restored (for example, with intrauterine infections, alcohol syndrome, etc.).

Currently, more than 50 genes have been identified that are located on all chromosomes except the sex chromosomes and are called proto-oncogenes. They control the processes of normal cell growth and differentiation. In the case of gene mutations or chromosomal rearrangements, inclusion of viral nucleotides, mutant forms of proto-oncogenes can trigger tumor growth processes.

Research in the field of gene regulation of growth and development led to the discovery of a system of homeobox genes that control growth, cell differentiation, and morphogenesis.

Under gene control is the synthesis of all hormones and factors that regulate the growth of hormone-binding proteins, as well as cell receptors for various hormones and factors.

The most important manifestation of gene regulation is the body's ability to stabilize the growth process and return to a given program in cases where physical development is disturbed under the influence of any external factors (starvation, infections, etc.). K. Waddington (1957) defined this property as canalization (entry into the program), or homeoresis. Homeoresis manifests itself, for example, in the fact that premature babies catch up with their peers by the age of three in terms of development (accelerated or compensatory growth), and children with intrauterine malnutrition - much later or are not included in the growth program. Canalization of growth according to a given individual program is expressed in the differentiation of somatotypes after the first period of extension (6-8 years).

Conditionality of growth and development by environmental factors

The processes of growth and development of the child's body are influenced by external factors: environmental pollution with radionuclides and xenobiotics; geochemical problems of territories (iodine deficiency in the biosphere, excess of iron, fluorine in water, etc.); the nature of the nutrition of children (deficiency of protein, iodine, zinc, etc.); social factors; the amount of solar radiation, etc.

Epidemiological studies show that in zones of ecological stress with an increased level of atmospheric air pollution, in particular, hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons, ammonia, sulfurous and fluoride gases, ethyl acetate, ethylene oxide, phenol, acetone and other harmful chemicals, there is a delay in the growth and development processes. children. With an increased content of stable strontium in drinking water up to 13 mg/l in children, there is a lag in the development of bone tissue, a tendency to decrease in weight and length of the body, chest circumference.

In the territories of geochemical endemias (insufficient content of microelements), the ecological unfavorability of the environment exacerbates the violation of the growth rates of children and adolescents. Scientific studies have established that the combined effects of industrial pollution and iodine deficiency disrupt the natural course of pubertal spurt.

The conditionality of growth and development by environmental factors must be taken into account when developing preventive measures aimed at improving the growth, development, protection and strengthening of the health of children and adolescents.

Epochal trend and cyclical processes of growth and development of the child population

Historians, archaeologists, anthropologists, on the basis of numerous studies, have established that the growth rates and the level of physical development of people in different historical eras were not the same. The main trend of growth and development of the younger generation of the XX century until the 80s. was the acceleration of these processes, which the German scientist Koch designated by the term acceleration(from Latin acceleratio- acceleration). Its essence lies in the fact that in the modern generation the stage of biological maturation ends earlier than in the previous generation. Acceleration affected the entire period of growth and development of the child from birth to puberty, but most clearly manifested in adolescence. In the United States and European countries in the middle of the 20th century, the body length of children aged 13-15 increased by an average of 2.5 cm per decade. According to observations of the development of Moscow schoolchildren, the peak of acceleration was recorded in the mid-1970s. and significantly exceeded the indicators of development of children and adolescents in rural areas.

In addition to the acceleration of growth and development in human biology, other changes occurred in the 20th century: life expectancy, the reproductive period and definitive (final) body size increased, and the structure of morbidity changed. Changes that occur throughout a person's life are called "secular trend"(English) secular trend- age-old trend). In this general secular trend, the acceleration of growth and development is integral part and covers only the stage of maturation.

Many hypotheses have been put forward to explain the causes of acceleration. Some scientists associated these processes with a general increase in the standard of living and well-being of the Earth's population, which grew at a faster pace in those countries where acceleration began earlier and was more pronounced. Another common point of view is the information hypothesis, according to which a huge flow of information contributes to prolonged excitation of the cerebral cortex and subcortex, resulting in an increase in the production of gonadotropic hormones of the pituitary gland and adrenal androgens. The endogenous causes of acceleration include, among other things, changes in heredity, in particular, an increase in marriages between previously isolated population groups. (theory of heterosis). The influence of geomagnetic activity on the processes of growth and maturation is noted. In children

born during the years of increased solar activity, the process of puberty is slowed down, comes later, the relative length of the legs is smaller, and the girth of the chest is larger compared to adolescents born during the period of normal solar activity.

To date, none of the theories of acceleration has received universal recognition. An increasing number of scientists are inclined to conclude that a combination of the impact on a growing organism of many factors that led to a sharp acceleration in the physical development of children in the second half of the 20th century.

Meanwhile, studies of recent decades, conducted in the countries of Europe, America and Russia, have shown that the processes of acceleration at the population level have stopped. The opposite process is gradually gaining strength, which the German researcher I. Richter called deceleration(synonym - retardation), those. slowing down the processes of growth and development. This circumstance testifies most of all in favor of the cyclical theory of "acceleration - retardation of development".

Changes in the pace of physical development of children and adolescents raise many practical questions. First of all, it is important to establish how the processes of acceleration and retardation affect the mental and mental development of the child, the onset of his functional maturity, readiness for learning, and in accordance with this, adjust the curricula to optimally match the age capabilities of students.

Knowledge of the characteristics of the growth and development of the child's body allows the doctor to understand and explain the activity of individual organs and systems, their relationship, the functioning of the whole body of the child in different age periods and its unity with the external environment.

The patterns of growth and development of the child population are the theoretical basis for the hygienic regulation of environmental factors for children and adolescents, which has the following features:

specificity of the norms - a developing organism is more sensitive to environmental factors;

inconstancy (replacement) of norms - norms retain their value in a certain age interval and at the end of it are replaced by new ones;

developing, training orientation of norms - hygiene standards should contribute to the optimal development of children and adolescents;

differentiation of hygiene standards taking into account the sex and health status of the growing organism.

Thus, at each age stage, the organism turns out to be mature, prepared only for certain parameters of the impact of factors, and it is these parameters that should be considered normal for a given age.

Physical development of children and adolescents, its current trends

The external integral manifestation of the adequacy of the processes of growth and development to the conditions of existence of the child's organism is the level of physical development.

Under the term "physical development" children and teenagers understand the state of morphological and functional properties and qualities, as well as the level of biological development.

In each period of life, physical development indicates the physical capacity (working capacity) of the child's body and its "biological age".

From the standpoint of the dynamics of growth processes, physical development characterizes the geometric dimensions of the body, its proportions, physique. The intensity of metabolic processes, the activity of physiological functions (for example, heart rate and respiration), tolerance to external temperature and other environmental factors depend on the size of the body. The dimensions and proportions of the body largely determine the ratio of the mechanisms of heat production and heat transfer. The intensity of heat production in the body is proportional to its mass, and the rate of heat transfer is proportional to the surface area of ​​the body. Therefore, for a small organism, the problem is additional production of heat during cooling, and for a large organism, additional heat removal during overheating. Any change in the size and proportions of the body as a result of natural processes of growth and development affects the balance of production and heat transfer and strictly leads to a restructuring of the activity of all autonomic systems of the body, and consequently, the central nervous and endocrine systems of regulation.

Thus, the level of physical development affects the functioning of all organs and systems of the body without exception and is one of the leading signs of health.

Assessment of the physical development of children and adolescents is carried out in the process of preventive medical examinations. Program

anthropometric surveys include the study somatometric(length, body weight, chest circumference); somatoscopic(state of the musculoskeletal system, skin, mucous membranes, muscles, level of puberty, "dental age") and physiometric indicators (vital capacity of the lungs (VC), grip strength of the hands).

The leading parameters reflecting the physical development and state of health are the length and weight of the body. Body length is a sign that characterizes the growth processes of the body, body weight indicates the development of the musculoskeletal system, subcutaneous fat, and internal organs. The circumference of the chest correlates with body weight and does not provide additional information for assessing the physical development of children and adolescents. It is determined only during special studies.

To characterize the physical development of children and adolescents, use:

Index method, which allows taking into account mass-height ratios using special formulas;

Percentile (centile) method, the essence of which is to evaluate the probabilistic distribution of indicators in percentage intervals;

The method of standardized deviations (z-score), based on the comparison of individual indicators with the standard ones;

A regression analysis method that takes into account the change in body weight with a change in its length.

The results of a comparative analysis of the information content of the methods indicate the preference for using the methods of regression analysis and, above all, modified regression scales (Baranov A.A., 2008).

Any manifestations of significant deviations from the norm in physical development indicate a relative unfavorable state of health of the individual. In the absence of a genetic predisposition, a low level of physical development may be the result of a quantitative and qualitative inadequacy of nutrition or some of its components (vitamins, essential amino acids, trace elements, etc.), excessive physical activity or chronic diseases. A high level of physical development may indicate endocrine disorders and requires a detailed dispensary examination of the child.

Children and adolescents with a high level of physical development, as a rule, have lower endurance.

Both lagging and advancing in the pace of physical development can also be the result of deviations in the functions of the central nervous system.

Mismatch of body weight with length or girth dimensions with longitudinal, i.e. their disharmony may occur with early sports specialization (for example, in girls involved in gymnastics from the age of 5-6). The development of disharmony of physical development can be facilitated by diseases associated with impaired growth and development of the musculoskeletal system or deviations in the activity of the endocrine glands.

Analysis of the data of the annual monitoring of the child population, conducted by the Research Institute of Hygiene and Health Protection of Children and Adolescents of the State Institution "Scientific Center for Children's Health" (GU SCCH) of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, made it possible to identify new trends in the processes of growth and development of the modern younger generation.

Currently, there is a decrease in almost all somatometric indicators of physical development (Fig. 10.2).

Rice. 10.2. Changes in somatometric signs of physical development in 15-year-old Moscow girls in the last 30 years (cm, kg) (Baranov A.A. et al., 2006)

Over the past 10 years alone, the number of undersized children has increased almost 3 times - from 0.5 to 1.46%. Among socially disadvantaged children (pupils of specialized educational institutions), the number of undersized children reaches 10%.

An assessment of the physical development of Moscow schoolchildren indicates an increase over the past 20 years in the proportion of children with underweight: among boys - from 7 to 14%, among girls - from 5 to 13%. In adolescents, the proportion of people with underweight in 2004 by the time they left school was diagnosed in every fourth boy and every sixth girl. In recent years, in parallel with this process, there has been an increase in the proportion of overweight boys.

In the physical development of the younger generation, there is a tendency to "gracilization" of the physique, i.e. reduction of all latitudinal and girth dimensions of the body, especially the transverse and sagittal diameters of the chest and the size of the pelvis.

An analysis of the physical development of children and adolescents indicates an increase in the number of children whose biological age lags behind their passport age. In particular, there is a shift in the timing of puberty (by the menarche of girls) towards older age. An assessment of the level of puberty of modern adolescent girls showed that 32.1% of 14-15-year-old schoolgirls and 22.1% of 16-17-year-olds have a relative lag, indicating a slowdown in the pace of their maturation compared to peers of previous years (Fig. 10.3). At the peak of acceleration in the 1970s. the age of menarche was 12 years 6 months, at present - 13 years 5 months.

Rice. 10.3. Dynamics of menarche age in Moscow girls (Baranov A.A. et al., 2006)

Against the background of a lack of body weight and a slowdown in sexual development, there is an increase in functional disorders of the cardiovascular system among adolescents. For 20 years, these figures have increased by more than 3 times.

Changes in the physical development of children and adolescents over the decades have been accompanied by negative shifts in their strength capabilities (Figures 10.4 and 10.5).

Rice. 10.4. Changes in hand grip strength in Moscow boys aged 8 to 17 years in different decades (longitudinal observations, kg) (Scheplyagina L.A., 2006)

Rice. 10.5. Changes in hand grip strength in Moscow girls aged 8 to 17 years in different decades (longitudinal observations, kg) (Scheplyagina L.A., 2006)

For Moscow schoolchildren, the VC index has decreased by an average of 15% over the past 20 years. Similar results were obtained for other regions of the country.

The study of individual typological features of the growth and development of the younger generation, the identification of deviations in the physical development of children of different age and sex groups is most closely related to the modern tasks of pediatrics, the search for a differentiated approach to the prevention and rehabilitation of children and adolescents.

Age periodization of growth and development of children and adolescents

The continuous process of growth and development of the child's body, its uneven nature, the heterochrony of the development of individual physiological systems lead to the fact that at different age stages the child's body has a special set of anatomical and physiological properties that determine the level of biological development and performance achieved. For the correct organization of the educational and educational process, the normalization of loads of a different nature, it is necessary to unite children into homogeneous age groups and observe the scientific principles of age periodization.

Age periodization is based on the division of childhood into several stages, characterized by common physiological features of the development of a growing organism. According to the current age periodization, in life cycle A person before reaching adulthood is distinguished by the following periods: newborn(1-10 days); infancy(10 days - 1 year); early childhood(1-3 years); first childhood(4 years -7 years); second childhood(8-12 years old - boys and 8-11 years old - girls); adolescence(13-16 years old - boys and 12-15 years old - girls); adolescence(17-21 years old - boys and 16-20 years old - girls).

The boundaries of age periodization are generally very arbitrary. They depend on specific ethnic, climatic, social and other factors. The “actual” physiological age often does not coincide with the calendar (passport) age due to differences in the rate of maturation of the organism and the conditions for its development. Therefore, to study the functional and adaptive capabilities of children of different ages, it is necessary to pay attention to the assessment of individual indicators of maturity. Only a combination of age and individual

approaches can ensure the development of adequate hygienic and pedagogical measures that contribute to the preservation of health, sustainable development of the body and personality of the child.

Taking into account the adaptive nature of the development of the child's body in age periodization, the so-called sensitive periods, those. periods of the greatest specific sensitivity of the physiological systems of the body to the effects of external factors. The high susceptibility of certain functions to the influence of environmental factors should be used to effectively target them, create favorable adequate conditions for the upbringing and education of the child, and maintain his health. On the other hand, strict control is needed to limit negative excessive loads, which can lead to impaired functioning of the body.

Sensitive is the period of infancy, especially the first six months of life, characterized by extremely high sensitivity to the developmental influences of the external environment.

The half-height jump period (age 5-6 years) is manifested by an increase in the length and surface area of ​​the limbs, which provides controlled heat exchange with the environment and is sensitive for successful hardening procedures (due to an increase in body thermal insulation and a decrease in the activity of chemical thermoregulation).

Primary school age (9-10 years) is sensitive for the formation of the ability of long-term purposeful activity, both physical and mental.

Ontogenetic development combines periods of evolutionary (gradual) morphofunctional maturation and periods of "revolutionary" turning points, which can be associated with both internal (biological) developmental factors and external (social) ones. Many researchers call them crisis, or critical.

One of these periods is the age of the beginning of education, when the qualitative changes in the morphofunctional maturation of the main physiological systems fall on the period of a sharp change in social conditions. Another critical period is puberty. The onset of puberty is characterized by a significant increase in the activity of the central link of the endocrine system (hypothalamus) and sharp changes in the interaction of subcortical

structures and cerebral cortex. Against this background, social requirements for adolescents increase, their self-esteem increases, which leads to a discrepancy between the functional capabilities of the body and socio-psychological factors. This situation can cause deviations in health and the formation of behavioral maladaptation, referred to as deviant behavior.

A natural biological marker of the stages of age development of children and adolescents is the alternation of periods of growth and differentiation of body cells. At each of these stages specific features of development occur that are never found in the same combination at any other stage.

So, in the first year of life the child is solving one of the most important tasks of development - preparation for the implementation of antigravitational reactions: sitting, standing, bipedalism. It is precisely for this that the processes of growth in length and increase in body weight are directed, which are most intensively occurring at this age. Muscles and bones are strengthened. The main distinguishing feature of the spine is the virtual absence of bends. The development of normal curvature of the spinal column is facilitated by sufficient physical activity of the child.

In infancy, a subcutaneous fat reserve is formed, which serves as a reserve of nutrients, mechanical protection of the skeleton and internal organs, as well as thermal protection to maintain body temperature, including due to special brown adipose tissue. In this age period, there is a primary acquaintance with the outside world and active mental development. Therefore, contacts with adults, especially with the mother, are of paramount importance.

Age of early and first childhood characterized by the gradual acquisition of some independent functions in the microsociety. Many personality traits are formed, the child acquires personality traits. Intensive growth processes are replaced by processes of cellular differentiation. During this period, ossification of many elements of the skeleton continues, eruption and loss of milk teeth occur, which is a criterion for "dental age". Motor activity increases sharply, the structure and functionality of skeletal muscles change. The arch of the foot is formed. Therefore, special attention should be paid to the prevention of flat feet, to encourage walking barefoot on the ground and grass, to monitor the quality and comfort of shoes. Due to the morphological and functional maturation of the nervous and

muscle structures, radical changes occur in the organization of small and precise hand movements, fine coordination abilities are formed.

In the period of 5-6 years, a half-height jump in body length is observed, and the limbs at this time grow faster than the body. This is the basis of the "Philippine test" (stretching the hand over the head to the opposite ear), which is an indicator of the morphofunctional maturity of the body and the possibility of starting the child's learning.

second childhood period characterized by the lowest growth rates of body length and weight. The formation of the curves of the spine is completed. Therefore, special attention must be paid to posture, prevention of disorders of the musculoskeletal system, to teach the child to maintain a hygienically correct posture during lessons, reading, watching television, etc. This period of ontogenesis is called the stage of primary socialization, characterized by the intensive development of properties that ensure the interaction of the child with other children and adults. Games, and mostly collective ones, occupy a central place in the development of higher mental functions. The structural features of organs and tissues are, as it were, subordinated to this task. Thus, the skeletal muscles of this age consist mainly of aerobic fibers, which are characterized by a high activity of oxidative processes and are well adapted to long-term, but not very high loads.

Adolescence (pubertal) age represents the most complex and controversial period of postnatal ontogenesis and rightfully belongs to the category of critical ones. The main feature of this age is the puberty of a teenager. A sharp activation of the pituitary-gonadal activity causes a significant change in the hormonal background, which inevitably affects the activity of all organs and systems of the body. So, on the part of the CCC, there are violations of the rhythm of the heart, noises, changes in blood pressure are detected. There is a psychological instability, there is a reassessment of values, social orientations of a teenager change.

At the beginning of puberty, the maximum growth spurt is recorded, mainly due to an increase in the length of the limbs. In the midst of pubertal restructuring, gender differences are formed in boys and girls. Skeletal muscles acquire a definitive structure and become functionally ready for any kind of training.

By the end of the pubertal period, the processes of ossification are completed. Due to the increased sensitivity and reactivity of the organism in adolescents, various anatomical and functional deviations are possible. Quite often during this period, there are violations of the musculoskeletal system, skeletal deformities (scoliosis, kyphosis, lordosis), which in the future may limit social capacity, including when choosing a profession. Changes in the skeletal system at this age include displacements of non-united pelvic bones when jumping from a height or changes in the shape of the pelvis in girls when wearing high-heeled shoes.

The state of health of a teenager during puberty requires constant monitoring and control. Functional deviations are gradually smoothed out and overcome by the end of puberty. The correct mode of educational and labor activity, physical activity, and rational nutrition contribute to a faster overcoming of them.

Criteria for the health of the child population and factors that shape it

According to the positive concept of health developed by WHO, health is understood not simply as the presence or absence of a disease, but as “the state of biological and mental functions in interaction with the physical and social factors affecting them”. Academician Yu.E. Veltishchev considers the health of children and adolescents as "a state of vital activity corresponding to the biological age of the child, a harmonious unity of physical and intellectual characteristics, the formation of adaptive and compensatory reactions in the process of growth."

Defining signs of the health of children and adolescents:

Absence at the time of the examination of any disease;

Harmonious and age-appropriate physical and mental development;

Normal level of functions;

No tendency to disease.

Modern scheme for a comprehensive assessment of the health status of children and adolescents includes assigning children to the appropriate health group (Order of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation dated December 30, 2003 No. 621).

TO I health group include healthy children with normal physical and mental development, without anatomical defects, functional and morphofunctional abnormalities.

Co. II health group children include:

Who do not have chronic diseases, but have some functional and morphofunctional disorders;

Convalescents, especially those who have had severe and moderate infectious diseases;

With a general delay in physical development without endocrine pathology (low growth, lag in the level of biological development); children with underweight or overweight;

Frequent and/or chronically ill with acute respiratory diseases;

With physical disabilities, the consequences of injuries or operations while maintaining the corresponding functions.

TO III health group children include:

Suffering from chronic diseases in the stage of clinical remission, with rare exacerbations, with preserved or compensated functionality, in the absence of complications of the underlying disease;

With physical disabilities, the consequences of injuries and operations, subject to compensation of the relevant functions; the degree of compensation should not limit the possibility of education or work of the child, including adolescence.

TO IV health group children include:

Suffering from chronic diseases in the active stage and the stage of unstable clinical remission with frequent exacerbations, with preserved or compensated functionality or incomplete compensation of functionality;

With chronic diseases in remission, but with limited functionality;

With a high probability of complications of the underlying disease, in which the underlying disease requires maintenance therapy;

With physical disabilities, the consequences of injuries and operations with incomplete compensation of the relevant functions, which, to a certain extent, limits the child's ability to study or work.

TO V group of health children include:

Suffering from severe chronic diseases, with rare clinical remissions, with frequent exacerbations, continuously relapsing course, with severe decompensation of the body's functional capabilities, the presence of complications of the underlying disease that require constant therapy;

Disabled children;

With physical disabilities, the consequences of injuries and operations with a pronounced violation of the compensation of the corresponding functions and a significant limitation of the possibility of training or work.

The child's belonging to a health group is established by a medical commission consisting of a pediatrician and medical specialists based on the results of a comprehensive preventive examination.

If there are several functional abnormalities and diseases in one child, the final conclusion about the state of his health is made according to the most severe of them.

All children assigned to III, IV or V health groups should be registered in the dispensary at the children's clinic at the place of residence with a pediatrician and / or specialist doctors, depending on the identified pathology.

Of great medical and social importance is the allocation of the II group of health. The functionality of children in this group has not yet been reduced, but there is a high risk of developing chronic diseases. Improving and corrective measures for such children are extremely important, since approximately 46% of them develop a chronic pathology.

The health of the child population is considered as public (collective) health. To characterize it, indicators of medical and demographic, physical development of various age and sex groups, statistical indicators of morbidity and disability data of children are used. The dynamics of the health status of children is more often assessed by morbidity, including general, infectious, non-infectious, by negotiability, temporary disability, and the frequency of hospitalization.

Knowledge of the structure of morbidity is necessary for planning sanitary and hygienic and therapeutic and preventive measures in children's and adolescent institutions.

Among the diseases in terms of negotiability, the first place in all age groups children are occupied with respiratory diseases.

When characterizing the health status of children's contingents, the following indicators are additionally used: health index(proportion of children in % who did not fall ill during the year, among all examined) and pathological affection(frequency of chronic and functional abnormalities in the pediatric population in %).

Currently in Russian Federation there is a trend towards an increase in general morbidity, individual nosological forms and chronic diseases (Fig. 10.6).

Rice. 10.6. Dynamics of the overall incidence of children (0-14 years old) and adolescents (15-17 years old) per 100 thousand people

During the period from 2000 to 2005, the overall incidence of children from 0 to 14 years of age increased by 16%, and among adolescents - by 18%. According to the All-Russian medical examination of children (2002), the proportion of healthy children compared with the previous medical examination has decreased from 45 to 34%, the proportion of children with chronic pathology and disability has doubled. Observations of the dynamics of the state of health of Moscow high school students over the past 40 years indicate a sharp decrease in absolutely healthy adolescents from 36.5 to 2.3%, i.e. 16 times. According to the Research Institute of Hygiene and Health Protection of Children and Adolescents of the SCCH RAMS, the overall pathological incidence of children under the age of 14 increased by 84.5% in the period from 1992 to 2002, and adolescents - by 61.6%. Almost 60% of children were diagnosed

chronic diseases are treated. According to the state report "On the sanitary and epidemiological situation in the Russian Federation in 2006", the structure of the incidence of children in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation consists of the same diseases, but their prevalence depends on climatic and social factors.

The first ranking place in the structure of morbidity in children is occupied by diseases of the respiratory system.

In second place in most regions - diseases of the digestive system.

The third and fourth place is shared by diseases of the eye and its adnexa and diseases of the skin and subcutaneous fatty tissue.

The structure of adolescent morbidity is similar to that of children, but the second place is occupied by diseases of the eye and its adnexa, injuries, poisoning and diseases of the musculoskeletal system.

In the process of growth and development, children and adolescents are exposed to various environmental factors, many of which can be considered as risk factors for good health. Not being the direct cause of the disease, these factors cause functional deviations in growth and development, contribute to the onset of the disease, its progression and unfavorable outcome.

TO biological Factors that shape the health of the child include the state of health of the mother, complicated pregnancy and childbirth, perinatal pathology, and genetic factors.

Genetic mutations contribute to the formation of hereditary diseases or determine the predisposition to them. Hereditary diseases and congenital malformations account for up to 30% of cases of hospitalization of children. Multifactorial diseases with a hereditary predisposition require special attention. These include a significant part of chronic somatic and neuropsychiatric diseases of an adult: atherosclerosis, hypertension, coronary heart disease, rheumatism, peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum, diabetes, allergic diseases, schizophrenia, etc.

environmental factors, that shape the health of children and adolescents can be summarized as follows:

Factors that shape the level and quality of life;

School environment;

The quality of environmental objects and climate.

Among social factors single-parent families, the level of education of parents, the psychological climate in the family, bad habits of parents, unsatisfactory living conditions, material security, and unhealthy nutrition are singled out.

Families with low incomes have higher levels of child morbidity, length of stay in hospital, deaths from accidents and injuries. With the decline in the quality of life of the family, the prerequisites for the chronicity of the child's diseases appear. According to T.I. Maksimova (2003), among families with a high standard of living, chronic diseases are found in 1/7 of this category of children, and in families with low level life, the number of chronically ill children reaches almost half.

In incomplete families, the incidence and the number of frequently ill children are higher than in complete families.

In children of the first year of life, the nature of the family and the education of the parents predominate among social factors. With age, housing conditions, family income, bad habits of parents make a greater contribution to the formation of a child's health. These factors include tobacco smoke in the environment. Passive smoking can cause lower respiratory tract infections, pneumonia, bronchitis, and exacerbation of asthma. Exposure to cigarette smoke in childhood contributes to cardiovascular disease and neurodevelopmental disorders in adulthood.

As the child develops social ties outside the family circle, factors such as the school environment, peer pressure and the media become increasingly important in shaping the values, attitudes and behaviors of children and young people. Behavioral risk factors (smoking, drug addiction, alcohol consumption) pose a real threat to the health of adolescents at the stage of maturation and in adulthood.

School environment factors determine 12.5% ​​of the incidence in the primary grades, and by the end of school their influence doubles, reaching 20.7%.

Even in the middle of the XIX century. a high prevalence among schoolchildren of myopia, postural disorders, asthenia, anemia - diseases that have been called "school diseases" because of their obvious connection with the unsatisfactory organization of education: insufficient illumination of classes, irregular shape

and sizes of school furniture, overload with training sessions. At present, the decrease in visual acuity continues to occupy one of the leading ranking places in the structure of morbidity in schoolchildren. During the period of schooling, the prevalence of visual impairment increases by 2-3 times. Visual acuity is reduced in every sixth high school student.

Posture disorders, including scoliosis, are also widely detected among students in public schools, especially in the 1st stage of education. During the period of study from primary to senior, the prevalence of scoliosis increases by 3.5-4 times. This pathology is detected in every 20th high school student.

In the modern school, new factors have formed that affect students:

Intensification of the educational process;

Computerization of education;

Application of new forms of education, including with an increase in the duration of the school week;

A significant decrease in motor activity, severe hypokinesia;

Study stress.

Experts note that the increased training loads often exceed the psychophysiological capabilities of students by several times. First-graders are physically, psychologically and mentally ready to perceive only 6-7% of the amount of load offered to them. School graduates experience a sharp deterioration in their neuropsychic health, which is caused, among other things, by additional classes at preparatory courses at universities or classes with tutors.

The school day for junior schoolchildren reaches 10 hours, and for high school students - 12-15 hours. Students compensate for the lack of time by reducing the duration of sleep and reducing physical activity. The situation is aggravated by the replacement of outdoor games in the yard with computer games. Today, at least 75% of school-age children suffer from physical inactivity. By the end of the working day and week, 40-50% of schoolchildren have pronounced fatigue, 60% have changes in blood pressure, and 80% have neuro-like reactions.

The quality of environmental objects

In the industrial regions of Russia, the infant mortality rate is 25% higher than in the environmentally favorable regions.

Diseases	Russia (or control)	Zones of ecological trouble
Diseases of the ENT organs:
chronic diseases of the nose and paranasal sinuses
chronic tonsillitis
chronic otitis media
Allergic diseases:
food allergies in young children
bronchial asthma
respiratory allergies
Recurrent bronchitis
Vegetovascular dystonia
Gastritis, gastroduodenitis
Nephropathy
CNS lesions:
encephalopathy, cerebral palsy
IQ less than 70%
Congenital malformations

Chemicals that irritate the respiratory tract, heavy metals, dioxins, polychlorinated and polycyclic hydrocarbons have a depressing effect on the local, and later on the systemic immunity of the child with the development of signs of secondary immunodeficiency. A reflection of this effect is the reduced intensity of anti-infective immunity after vaccination.

Many xenobiotics cause serious reactions and damage to the central nervous system: a decrease in the intellectual development quotient (IQ index), minimal brain dysfunction, behavioral anomalies, neurological reactions, and a decrease in learning success.

A threat to the health of children living in rural areas is contact with pesticides and mineral fertilizers, which is manifested by a greater frequency of neurovegetative dystonia and functional pathology of the thyroid gland. According to American statistics, most cases of pesticide poisoning in children occur under the age of 6 years.

Age is a determining factor in a child's health.

(Table 10.2).

Table 10.2. Contribution of various factors to the incidence of children, %

According to Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences G.I. Sidorenko, there are no standard values ​​of risk factors. The contribution of risk factors to morbidity depends both on the type of objects studied (person, case, disease duration, nosological unit) and the nature of the disease (acute, chronic).