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1. Western and Northern Europe in the late XX - early XXI centuries. 2. Eastern Europe in the late XX - early XXI centuries. Topic: "Europe in the late XX - early XXI centuries."
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The dominant development in the second half of the XX century. it is considered to be significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress. However, even in these decades, the Western world faced a number of problems, shocks - all those that are called "challenges of the time." technological and informational revolutions, collapse of colonial empires, global economic crises 1974-1975. and 1980-1982, social performances in the 60-70s. XX century, separatist movements, etc. All of them demanded one or another restructuring of economic and social relations, the choice of ways for further development, compromises or toughening of political courses.
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France In France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of the collaborationist governments. After the end of the war, coalition governments were established in most Western European countries. The main measures were: the restoration of democratic freedoms, the purge of the state apparatus from members of the fascist movement, the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and enterprises. In France, 5 largest banks, the coal industry, Renault automobile plants (the owner of which collaborated with the occupation regime), and several aviation enterprises were nationalized.
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In France, the Constitution of the Fourth Republic was adopted in 1946. In the French Constitution of 1946, in addition to democratic rights, rights were proclaimed: to work, rest, social security, education, workers' rights to participate in the management of enterprises, trade union and political activity, the right to a strike "within the law", etc. In accordance with the provisions of the constitutions in many countries, social insurance systems were created, including pensions, sickness and unemployment benefits, and assistance to large families. A 40-42-hour week was established, and paid holidays were introduced. This was done largely under pressure from the workers.
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After a decade of stability in the life of the Western European states, a period of upheavals began. in France by the end of the 50s. there was a crisis situation caused by the frequent change of governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (loss of Indochina, Tunisia and Morocco, the war in Algeria), the deterioration of the situation of the working people. In such an environment, the idea of \u200b\u200b"strong power" was gaining increasing support, of which General Charles de Gaulle was an active supporter. In May 1958, the command of the French troops in Algeria refused to obey the government until Charles de Gaulle returned to it. The general declared that he was "ready to take over the power of the Republic" subject to the abolition of the 1946 constitution and granting him extraordinary powers. In the fall of 1958, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which provided the head of state with the broadest rights,
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In December, de Gaulle was elected President of France. Having established a “regime of personal power,” he sought to resist attempts to weaken the state from within and from without. But on the issue of colonies, he decided that it was better to carry out decolonization "from above", while retaining influence in the former possessions, than to wait for the shameful exile, for example, from Algeria, which was fighting for independence. In 1960, de Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of the Algerians to decide their fate provoked an anti-government revolt by the military. In 1962 Algeria gained independence.
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In France in 1961-1962. demonstrations and strikes were organized demanding an end to the rebellion of the ultra-colonialist forces. The highest point of social protests during this period was the events of May - June 1968 in France (the number of strikers in the country exceeded 10 million people). The government was forced to make concessions. The participants in the strike achieved: an increase in wages by 10-19%, an increase in vacations, an expansion of the rights of trade unions. These events proved to be a serious test for the authorities. In April 1969, President de Gaulle put forward a bill on the reorganization of local self-government to a referendum, but the majority of those who voted rejected the bill. After that, Charles de Gaulle resigned. In June 1969, J. Pompidou was elected the country's new president.
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In the late 90s. in many European countries, liberals replaced the conservatives in power; in France, following parliamentary elections, a government was formed from representatives of left-wing parties.
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Germany and Italy for Germany, Italy was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, the creation of new democratic states. significant battles unfolded around elections to constituent assemblies, development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, the events associated with the choice of a monarchical or republican form of state went down in history as a "battle for the republic" (the country was proclaimed a republic as a result of a referendum on June 18, 1946). The constitutions in 1947 in Italy (entered into force on January 1, 1948), in 1949 in West Germany, became the most democratic constitutions in the history of these countries.
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The 50s constituted a special period in the history of Western European countries. Post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. The scientific and technological revolution began, one of the main manifestations of which was the automation of production. The qualifications of the workers increased, and their wages also increased. In Germany during the 50s. wages doubled. In some countries, for example in Italy, Austria, the indicators were not so significant. Governments periodically “freeze” wages. This provoked protests and workers' strikes. Economic recovery in Germany and Italy. In the postwar years, the economy here was more difficult to establish than in other countries. Against this background, the situation in the 50s. was regarded as an "economic miracle". American assistance under the Marshall Plan was a significant help.
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The period of stable development coincided with the coming to power of the Conservatives. Thus, in the FRG the name of K. Adenauer, who served as chancellor in 1949-1963, was associated with the revival of the German state, and L. Erhard was called the "father of an economic miracle." Christian Democrats partly retained the facade of "social policy", spoke about a society of general welfare, social guarantees for working people. In the FRG, the theory of "social market economy" was established, focused on supporting private property and free competition.
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A wave of social action has brought about political change in most Western European countries. In many of them in the 60s. the social democratic and socialist parties came to power. In the FRG at the end of 1966, representatives of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) entered the coalition government, and since 1969 they have already formed the government themselves. In Italy, the basis of post-war governments was the Christian Democratic Party (CDP), which entered into a coalition with either the left or the right parties. In the 60s. her partners were the left - social democrats and socialists. The leader of the Social Democrats D. Saragat was elected president of the country. Despite the differences in situations in different countries, the policy of the Social Democrats had some common features. Their main, they considered the creation of a "social society", the main values \u200b\u200bof which were proclaimed freedom, justice, solidarity. The key provision of their programs was the thesis about state regulation of the economy. The attitude to the market was expressed by the motto: "Competition - as far as possible, planning - as necessary".
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An important aspect of the activities of the social democratic governments of the Western European states was the change in foreign policy. Particularly significant steps in this direction were made in the FRG. The government that came to power in 1969, headed by Chancellor W. Brandt (SPD) and Vice-Chancellor and Foreign Minister V. Scheel (FDP), made a fundamental turn in the "Eastern policy", concluding in 1970-1973. bilateral treaties with the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, confirming the inviolability of the borders between the FRG and Poland, the FRG and the GDR. The aforementioned treaties, as well as the quadripartite agreements on West Berlin signed by representatives of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France in September 1971, created a real basis for expanding international contacts and mutual understanding in Europe.
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In the mid 70s. significant political changes have taken place in the states of South-Western and Southern Europe. In Portugal, as a result of the April 1974 revolution, an authoritarian regime was overthrown. The first post-revolutionary governments (1974-1975), consisting of the leaders of the Armed Forces Movement and the Communists, focused on the tasks: defascizing and establishing democratic orders, decolonizing Portugal's African possessions, carrying out agrarian reform, adopting a new constitution of the country, and improving the living conditions of workers. Subsequently, the right-wing bloc Democratic Alliance (1979-1983) came to power, which tried to curtail the reforms begun earlier, and then the coalition government of the socialist and social-democratic parties led by the leader of the socialists M. Soares (1983-1985).
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In Greece, in 1974, the regime of the "black colonels" was replaced by a civilian government made up of representatives of the conservative bourgeoisie. It did not carry out major transformations. In 1981 -1989. and since 1993 the party of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) was in power, a course of democratization of the political system and social reforms was carried out.
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In Spain, after the death of F. Franco in 1975, King Juan Carlos I became the head of state. With his approval, the transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one began. The government headed by A. Suarez restored democratic freedoms and lifted the ban on the activities of political parties. In December 1978, a constitution was adopted that proclaimed Spain a social and legal state. Since 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party has been in power, its leader F. Gonzalez headed the country's government. Particular attention was paid to measures to raise production, create jobs. The result of the policy of the socialists, who were in power continuously until 1996, was the completion of the peaceful transition from a dictatorship to a democratic society.
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Crisis 1974-1975 seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. Changes were needed, a restructuring of the economy. Under the existing economic and social policy, there were no resources for it, and government regulation of the economy did not work. Conservatives tried to answer the challenge of the time. Their orientation towards a free market economy, private entrepreneurship and initiative was well aligned with the objective need for extensive investment in production. In the late 70s - early 80s. conservatives have come to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained ruling until 1997. In 1982, H. Kohl took the post of Chancellor in Germany. The long-term rule of the Social Democrats in the Nordic countries was interrupted They were defeated in the 1976 elections in Sweden and Denmark, and in 1981 in Norway.
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In countries (Eastern Europe), a gap between constitutions and reality in the field of citizens' rights and freedoms has emerged. Their violations by the Communist Party were massive. This aroused the discontent of their population, which, in the context of the weakening of totalitarianism in the USSR in 1989-1990, led to democratic reforms and the collapse of the omnipotence of the communists. In August 1980, in Poland, in Gdansk, a free trade union association was established, which received the name "Solidarity". It was headed by L. Walesa, an electrician at the local shipyard. Soon it turned into a massive organized social and political movement (up to 10 million members). The new leader V. Jaruzelski, under pressure from Moscow, introduced martial law in the country and arrested 5,000 trade union activists. In connection with the beginning of "perestroika" in the USSR, V. Jaruzelski was forced to agree to the legalization of the activities of Solidarity, to free parliamentary elections, the establishment of the presidency of the country and the creation of a second chamber in the Diet - the Senate. The June 1989 elections ended with the victory of Solidarity, and its faction in the Diet formed a democratic government headed by T. Mazowiecki.
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In 1990, the leader of Solidarity, L. Walesa, was elected president of the country. He supported Balcerowicz's plan for radical reforms, which led to a temporary painful decline in the living standards of the population. With his active participation, Poland began to move closer to NATO and the European community. Temporary economic difficulties associated with mass privatization, as well as the discovery of secret ties in the old days with the special services of some figures from Walesa's entourage led to the fact that during the 1995 presidential elections he was defeated by A. Kwasniewski.
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In Czechoslovakia, after the beginning of "perestroika" in the USSR, G. Husak refused to change the political course and enter into dialogue with the opposition, and in 1988 he was forced to resign from the post of communist leader. In November 1989, the velvet revolution took place in Czechoslovakia, during which, under the pressure of mass peaceful protests, the communists were forced to agree to the formation of a government with the participation of representatives of the democratic opposition. A. Dubcek became the speaker of the parliament, and V. Havel, a democrat writer, became the president. In Czechoslovakia, a peaceful transition took place from a communist dictatorship to parliamentarism. Democratic transformations began in political and state life. On January 1, 1993, Czechoslovakia was divided into two states - the Czech Republic and Slovakia. V. Havel was elected President of the Czech Republic.
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Democratization of public and state life also took place in the GDR, where the democratic opposition won the first free elections in March 1990. As a result of a popular uprising, the hated communist regime of N. Ceausescu in Romania was overthrown in December 1989. The struggle of the Albanians to liquidate the communist regime in their country ended in 1992. Bulgaria, where democratic forces also came to power, did not bypass the changes. According to the new constitution of 1991, the Bulgarian People's Republic became the Republic of Bulgaria. The process of democratization of public and state life extended to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In the early 1990s, new constitutions were adopted in a number of Eastern European states, and important changes were made to the constitutions of others. They changed not only the names of states, but also the essence of the social and political system, perceived universal human democratic values. According to the new
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Romania's new constitution was approved in November 1991. Instead of the Romanian People's Republic, the Republic of Romania appeared. The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia and Montenegro, which arose after the collapse of the Yugoslav Federation, was adopted in April 1992. The constitutions also consolidated changes in the functions of the head of state, in the role of which the collective body ceased to act. The post of the president of the state was restored everywhere. It was often provided for his election by popular vote, and he himself was endowed with significant powers of authority, the right of a suspensive veto, and sometimes the right to dissolve parliament (in certain cases).
By the 60-70s of the 19th century, the period of national liberation movements and revolutions, which had been shuddering for several decades, ends in Europe. Despite the defeat of some uprisings, a wave of struggle for the elimination of feudal remnants and national independence was sweeping across Europe. The peace that has come in the countries of Europe has given impetus to their political and social development. The bourgeoisie took a special place in state and public life. The beginning industrialization provided a way out of the economic crisis and the demographic growth of the population of Europe.
Political development of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th centuries§
By the 70s. the national liberation movements and revolutions in Western Europe are coming to an end. Here bourgeois nation-states took shape in the form of constitutional monarchies or republics. The evolutionary nature of socio-political development began to prevail. A parliamentary system was formed on a two- or multi-party basis. The parliamentary tribune made it possible to declare the demands and requests of the general population. Civil society with its knowledge of the principles of law and government, autonomy of thinking was asserted.
In political life, the role of the industrial bourgeoisie increased, interested in the patronage of a strong state to protect its property. She put the state apparatus, parties, unions of entrepreneurs, and other subsidiary organizations into service.
In England, the regime of parliamentary monarchy and a two-party system operated. Liberals and conservatives took turns in power. The executive power and its administrative apparatus, represented by the cabinet of ministers, have become stronger.
In France in 1870 a republican system was established, but the positions of the monarchists were still strong. The French bourgeoisie, prompted by the democratic strata, waged a long struggle to consolidate the republic. In 1875, the constitution of the Third Republic was adopted, providing for the creation of a bicameral parliament. The head of state was the president, who was elected by the chambers of parliament. He had great powers. In the struggle for the establishment of the republic and its democratization, France experienced at the end of the 19th century. several serious political crises.
In Germany, a constitution was adopted in 1871, according to which the executive and partly legislative power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor. The highest representative body was the Reichstag, elected on the basis of universal suffrage. Laws passed by the lower house of parliament were subject to approval by the upper house and the emperor. He appointed a chancellor, a union minister, responsible only to him. In Prussia, the three-year electoral law was retained for elections to the local Landtag.
A bourgeois monarchy was established in Italy. Legislative power belonged to the king and parliament, which consisted of the Senate and House of Representatives. The king appointed and removed the highest officials of the state, had the right to dissolve parliament. An extremely narrow layer of the propertied classes received the right to vote.
The aggravation of social contradictions, the growth of a mass movement forced the ruling circles of many Western countries to go for the democratization of the political system, mainly along the path of expanding electoral rights. In England, the electoral reform of the 80s. increased the number of voters in parliament at the expense of the petty bourgeoisie and the top of the working class. The electoral reform in Italy (1882) gave the right to vote to medium and even small owners. In Germany, a persistent struggle was waged by democratic forces to abolish the three-class electoral system in Prussia.
At the beginning of the XX century. politicians of a new formation came to power, realizing the need to apply new methods of leadership in society. They embarked on reforms in social relations. Bourgeois reformism manifested itself mainly on the basis of liberalism, which seized the dominant positions during the period of the establishment of industrial society. Liberal political leaders in France (E. Combes, radicals), Italy (J. Giolitti), and England (D. Lloyd George) carried out some reforms to reduce social tension. In Germany, where liberalism was weaker, but the need for reform was felt, reformism was implemented on a conservative basis. His guide was the Imperial Chancellor B. von Bülow.
Social structure of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th centuries§
In the course of industrialization, the social structure of European society changed. As a result of the combination of industrial and banking activities, a financial aristocracy was formed, which included a narrow circle of individuals and families. She made up the elite of Western society.
The symbol of power in France was the "200 families" that controlled the French bank. In the psychology of the financial aristocracy, extreme individualism and a sense of community with their own kind were intertwined.
Representatives of the old aristocracy played a significant role in society. In England, Germany, Italy and even in France, where the break with the feudal past occurred most radically, they were given access to power and business. Natives of the bourgeois strata sought to become related with them.
The industrial era created the conditions for entrepreneurship. A fairly large middle class emerged, uniting the bourgeoisie, bureaucracy, and intelligentsia. They were well educated people, busy with work and had a practical mind. For them, an interest in enrichment was combined with an interest in business, in which they often saw the meaning of their life.
The industrial revolution led to the formation of a working class deprived of the means of production. Hired workers became the main producers of wealth.
The use of machines created conditions for the use of the labor of women and children. The gap in pay between skilled and unskilled workers was quite high.
In the agriculture of most Western countries, a significant part of the working-age population was employed. In England, the peasantry has practically disappeared. It was replaced by tenants and agricultural workers. In other countries, the position of wealthy peasants and farmers strengthened, but there were still many small peasants, especially in France.
Demographic processes of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th centuries§
Industrialization, the growth of agricultural productivity have created the material prerequisites for meeting people's needs for food, increasing the population. The "first population explosion" has occurred. The population of Europe in the XIX century. doubled and amounted to more than 400 million people by 1900. Population growth rates increased especially sharply in the second half of the 19th century, which is explained by a decrease in mortality with a high birth rate. The successes of medicine in the fight against epidemics, improved health care contributed to a decrease in mortality. In the last third of the XIX century. the highest population growth was observed due to the low mortality rate for that time and the high birth rate. But at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. the trend towards a decrease in the birth rate was sharply marked. In many countries - England, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, the Scandinavian states - a demographic revolution began, which meant a decrease in fertility and mortality, and an increase in life expectancy.
The demographic revolution began in France, which happened a century earlier, at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. It is directly related to the transformations caused by the Great French Revolution and the consequences of the Napoleonic wars.
Late marriages are typical for Western European countries. The average age at marriage in Western countries was at the end of the 19th century. 25 - 28 years old. A new type of family was formed, in which the practice of conscious birth control was observed, which was caused by social and cultural progress. The birth rate was lower among the propertied classes, the middle strata, and higher among unskilled workers, in poor families.
An increase in the instability of marriages has become a characteristic feature of family and marriage relations. However, to dissolve the marriage in the 19th century. it was possible only after a long and expensive procedure, so only representatives of the wealthy could achieve a divorce. In most cases, the marriage was dissolved on the initiative of men. With the growth of their economic independence, women became more proactive in the dissolution of marriage.
Migration of the population of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th centuries§
XIX century. is considered the century of massive resettlement movements. Migration or movement of people was caused by many reasons - economic, political, national, religious.
The wealth of the bowels of the New World, the vast expanses of land demanded workers. The legislation of the United States, Latin American countries patronized immigration. Recruiting points and a wide network of incentive societies for resettlement were organized. In 1800-1900 28 million people emigrated from Europe to America. The first place in terms of the number of migrants was occupied by England, from which about 13 million people left over the years. The main significance of the resettlement movements was that they accelerated the economic development of countries in need of an influx of labor, led to the colonization of sparsely populated areas, and contributed to the involvement of various regions in the world economy. Moreover, at the beginning of the XX century. Migration from England and Germany has significantly decreased, but it has significantly increased from less developed countries - Italy, the Balkan countries, Eastern Europe. Migration from developed countries to economically backward countries has increased in order to subjugate the latter. Migration from France to North Africa was similar. In general, European migration led to the settlement of many regions of North and Latin America, Australia, Oceania.
Urbanization of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th centuries§
The rapid development of industrial production has led to urbanization, which means the concentration of population and economic life in cities, the growth of urban residents at the expense of rural dwellers.
The process of urbanization began primarily in England and was closely associated with industrialization. In the middle of the XIX century. in the cities lived more than half of the population of England, at the beginning of the XX century. - 2/3 of its total number. London together with the suburbs had over 7 million inhabitants.
The influx of the rural population into the cities expanded the reserve army of labor, created new masses of consumers, which stimulated the development of mass production. Between 1880 and 1914, 60 million Europeans moved from villages to cities. In 1900, there were 13 millionaire cities.
Urbanization developed spontaneously, uncontrollably, which led to the spread of various social diseases - crime, alcoholism, prostitution, mental disorders. The state of the urban environment deteriorated, which led to an ecological crisis. Therefore, the city authorities began to pay more attention to the process of urban improvement. The development of medical knowledge made it possible to identify the causative agents of epidemics, breeding grounds for which were poor neighborhoods where the population lived crowded, in unsanitary conditions. In the fight against epidemics, personal hygiene, air and environmental cleaning were required.
Also, the layout of cities began to change. New wide streets - avenues - were laid through the old center and suburbs. The need for the construction of public buildings has increased - department stores, libraries, exhibition halls, sports facilities. There have been changes in construction equipment, new construction materials have appeared - metal, glass, concrete.
Enlightenment of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th centuries§
Technological progress and the associated transition to machine production required competent skilled workers. Therefore, in Western countries in the second half of the nineteenth century. universal primary education is being introduced. The number of literate men by the end of the century reached 75 - 90% of the total. In a public school, children were taught reading, writing, they were given elementary knowledge of arithmetic, they were introduced to history and religious dogmas. The characteristic of the school learning process was the memorization of a certain minimum of knowledge.
The children of wealthy parents had the opportunity to receive secondary education. With the development of industrial production, along with gymnasiums for the humanities, technical and real schools appeared, in which great attention was paid to the study of mathematics, physics, and chemistry. Secondary school was inaccessible to the majority of children, both because it was paid, and because the children of the poor were forced to earn a living from an early age.
After graduating from secondary school, education could be continued in higher educational institutions and received the profession of engineer, agronomist, teacher, doctor. Higher education was paid everywhere. Women were denied access to universities.
Life of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th centuries§
The nutritional quality of Western Europeans has generally improved, as the percentage of meat and fruits in the diet has increased. At the same time, the use of alcohol and tobacco increased. In Germany, the annual share of tobacco per capita increased from 1 to 1.6 kg in 1870-1913. Coffee has become a generally available drink, although poor people are often content with its surrogate.
Families with prosperity lived in palaces, mansions, apartments, furnished with expensive furniture. The interior changed simultaneously with the changes in artistic styles. In the Napoleonic era, furniture was distinguished by its heavy weight, clear geometry of an oval, circle, rectangle. The atmosphere of the house was of a cold, formal, ceremonial character. In the middle of the century, furniture became lighter and more pretentious, upholstered in plush and velvet (the second rococo). The Art Nouveau style of the end of the century brought sluggish outlines, streamlined forms, asymmetry. Luxury and prosperity were emphasized - dark colors in interiors, soft quilted furniture, heavy drapery.
Fashion in clothes, dictated by the court, gave way to bourgeois fashion. The men's suit as a whole has acquired uniformity, efficiency, practicality. It has become stricter to divide by functional purpose. Jackets and jackets have turned into work clothes, a tailcoat - into a dress one. At the end of the XIX century. tuxedos (England), which they put on when going to a men's club, theater, restaurant, came into fashion.
The woman's clothing was very diverse and was intended to highlight the wealth and prosperity of her husband. At the beginning of the XIX century. the women's dress resembled a tunic, the belt was under the very breast, at the bottom of the skirt and on the sleeves there were many flounces. Women's outfit was complemented by expensive jewelry. In the middle of the century, in women's fashion, where the tone was set by France, the style of the Second Empire was established - clothes were extremely pretentious in nature. The crinoline came into use, representing a gathered domed skirt with many petticoats or steel hoops. Gold laces were especially fashionable in decoration. At the end of the XIX century. with the advent of new vehicles (car, tram), the spread of sports exercises, women's clothing has become simpler. An important factor that influenced the changes in clothing was the desire of women for equality, their struggle for education. There were female employees, doctors, teachers. A skirt with a blouse, a suit consisting of a skirt and a jacket, and a coat came into use.
Ordinary people wore what did not interfere with their work and what they could afford according to their income. Folk costume was supplanted by a pan-European urban type, although many of its details were preserved (ornament, decorations).
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Richins of the First World War. Parties plans
The following major wars preceded World War I:
Spanish-American (1898), the US imperialists sought to seize the economically and strategically important islands in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans and in the Caribbean, belonging to Spain. The outcome of this war was in favor of the United States, which predetermined the immeasurable economic and military superiority of the states over feudal Spain.
Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902). The reason for the war was England's intention to seize two small Boer republics in southern Africa (now South Africa), on whose territory there were richest deposits of gold and diamonds. In 1900, England sent an army of 200,000 against the Boers (subsequently increasing its number to 450,000). Defending their independence, the Boers created an army of 60 thousand people on a militia basis. However, despite the partisan movement, they were forced to end resistance in 1902.
Russian-Japanese War (1904-1905). It was caused by the clash of interests between tsarist Russia and imperialist Japan, which is striving to turn Korea, Manchuria and other regions of the Far East into its colonies. Russia had 300 thousand soldiers and 57 warships. With the help of the United States and England, Japan created a large army - 370 thousand people and 73 warships. Russia underestimated the strength of the enemy and poorly prepared for the war. Military setbacks and the growing revolution within the country forced the tsarist government to accept the terms of peace dictated by Japan.
The First World War, which began on August 1, 1914 and lasted until November 11, 1918, arose as a result of the aggravation of the political and economic struggle between the largest imperialist countries of Europe. This led to the division of the world into two hostile camps and the emergence of two groups: the Triple Alliance - Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and the Triple Accord or the Entente - England, France and Russia.
The war between the major European powers was beneficial to the US imperialists, since as a result of this struggle, favorable conditions were created for the further development of American expansion, especially in Latin America and the Far East. American monopolies relied on maximizing the benefits of the war in Europe.
Due to the fact that the war for the redivision of the world affected the interests of all imperialist countries, most of the world's states were gradually drawn into it. The war became a world war, both in its political goals and in scale.
In preparing for the war, the imperialists saw in it:
First, a means of resolving external contradictions;
Second, a means that could help them cope with the growing discontent of the population of their own countries and suppress the growing revolutionary movement.
By its nature, the war of 1914-1918. was imperialist, aggressive, unjust on both sides. It was a war for who should rob and oppress more.
The plans of military operations of the main participants in the war did not sufficiently take into account the increased role of economic and moral factors and were calculated for the conduct of battles at the expense of mobilization reserves accumulated in peacetime. It was believed that the war would be short-lived.
Characteristic in this respect is the strategic plan of Germany (the Schlieffen plan), which outlined the rapid defeat of the obviously superior forces of the Entente by conducting major offensive operations, first against the armies of France and England, and then against Russia. This circumstance determined the choice of the strategic form of the offensive - flanking and encirclement of the main enemy forces. In order to bypass and encircle the French army, the flanking maneuver was planned to be carried out through Belgium, bypassing the main forces of the French army from the north. In the east, it was planned to deploy 15-16 divisions, which were supposed to cover East Prussia from a possible invasion of Russian troops.
Although the Schlieffen plan was characterized by such positive aspects as taking into account the factors of surprise and the role of strategic initiative, the correct choice of the direction of the main strike and the concentration of forces in the decisive direction, on the whole it turned out to be flawed, since it incorrectly assessed the capabilities of its troops and the enemy.
The Austro-Hungarian war plan was strongly influenced by the demand of the German General Staff to pin down the Russian armies during the period of Germany's main attack on France. In this regard, the Austro-Hungarian General Staff planned simultaneously active actions against Russia, Serbia and Montenegro. The main blow was planned to be delivered from Galicia to the east and northeast. The Austro-Hungarian plan was built without real consideration of the country's economic and moral capabilities. The presence of forces did not correspond to the tasks set.
The French plan, although it provided for active offensive actions, was passive and wait-and-see, since the initial actions of the French troops were made dependent on the actions of the enemy. The plan provided for the creation of three shock groups, but only one of them (Lorraine) received an active task - to attack Lorraine and Alsace. The central grouping should become a connecting link, covering the border in its own zone, and the Belgian grouping should act depending on the enemy's behavior. If the Germans begin to advance through the territory of Belgium, then this army must be ready for an offensive in the north-east direction; if the Germans did not take active action in neutral Belgium, it was supposed to advance eastward.
The British plan proceeded from the assumption that the allies - Russia and France - should shoulder the entire burden of waging war on land. The main task of the British armed forces was considered to ensure supremacy at sea. For operations on land, it was planned to transfer seven divisions to France.
The Russian war plan, due to the economic and political dependence of tsarist Russia on the Anglo-French capital, provided for simultaneous offensive actions against Austria-Hungary and Germany. The plan had two options.
Option "A". If Germany concentrates its main forces against France, then the main efforts of the Russian army were directed against Austria-Hungary.
Option "D". In the event that Germany delivered the main blow to Russia, the Russian army turned its main efforts against Germany. The Northwestern Front was to defeat the 8th German Army and capture East Prussia. The Southwestern Front was tasked with encircling the Austro-Hungarian troops stationed in Galicia.
By the beginning of the First World War, the strategic deployment of troops in accordance with the adopted war plans was completed by Germany and France in 16-17 days. It took Russia 30 days to mobilize and deploy troops. By the beginning of the war, neither side had an overall superiority in forces.
In this way:
1. In the era of imperialism, when the contradictions inherent in capitalist society reach an extreme degree of aggravation, when the development of capitalism is extremely uneven and abruptly, when there is an all-round growth of political reaction and military aggression, predatory, predatory, predatory wars are waged for the redivision of the world, for world domination. In the era of imperialism, wars develop into world wars.
2. The formation of alliances of the largest states of Europe was a clear preparation for war and indicated the irresistibility of its approach. Internal and external contradictions forced the ruling circles of European states to accelerate the outbreak of war. The imperialists tried to instill in the peoples the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inevitability of armed clashes, in every possible way they instilled militarism and incited chauvinism. The bourgeoisie, playing on the patriotic feelings of the peoples, justified the arms race, camouflaged its aggressive goals with false arguments about the need to defend the Fatherland from external enemies.
3. Common to all the plans of the countries participating in the First World War was that they expressed the predatory aspirations of individual powers, as well as both warring coalitions. At the same time, they reflected sharp contradictions between individual imperialist states within coalitions, each of which sought to impose more military burdens on its allies and obtain more wealth by dividing the spoils.
Strategic plans were devoid of purposefulness, did not clearly define the direction of the main strikes, and did not ensure the creation of the necessary superiority to achieve the goals of the war.
The first period of modern history opened with a tragic chapter in the history of mankind - the First World War. But it did not so much solve the old problems and contradictions as it gave rise to new ones. The causes of the First World War are manifold.
The main reasons for the war:
Struggle for spheres of influence between the leading countries of the world;
Striving for a new redistribution of colonies;
Growth of internal political contradictions in European countries and the desire to solve or avoid them with the help of war;
Formation of opposing military-political alliances: the Entente and the Triple Alliance, the arms race, the militarization of the economy.
Participants:
Entente:France + UK + Russia
Triple (Quadruple) Union:
Germany + Austria-Hungary + Italy + Turkey
- Italy + Bulgaria
Mutual claims:
United Kingdom:
Germany is the main rival in European politics, in trade at sea and in the struggle for colonies;
An undeclared economic and trade war took place between the countries;
Great Britain could not forgive Germany for supporting the Boers in the Boer War of 1899-1902
But at the same time, she tried to keep Germany as a rival of Russia and France on the European continent;
It sought to take away from Turkey the oil-rich lands of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula.
These and other foreign policy interests led Britain to abandon the policy of "brilliant isolation" and join the anti-German alliance.
France:
Germany is the main enemy on the European continent;
She strove to take revenge for the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870;
Hoped to return Alsace and Lorraine, annex the Saar coal basin and the Ruhr;
French goods could not compete with German ones in the European market;
She was afraid of losing the colonies in North Africa.
For these reasons, France became an active participant in the anti-German bloc.
Russia:
Strived to expand its territory at the expense of Austria-Hungary, annexing Galicia;
Claimed control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles;
Assessed the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway as a violation of the agreement on the division of spheres of influence in the Balkans;
She hoped to preserve the role of "defender of all Slavic peoples" in the Balkans, supporting the anti-Austrian and anti-Turkish struggle of the peoples of the Balkans.
With the help of a victorious war, Russia strove to postpone the time for solving urgent domestic problems.
To solve these problems, Russia found allies in the person of Great Britain and France.
USA:
Strive to penetrate the European market;
They hoped to strengthen their influence in Asia and increase their penetration into China.
Those. become an active participant in European politics.
Germany:
The young dynamic state was striving for military, economic and political leadership;
Active conquest of sales markets led to a clash of interests with Great Britain;
Strived to preserve and expand colonial possessions at the expense of France, Holland, Belgium, Great Britain;
Intervened in the politics of the Middle East region.
Germany has most aggressively sought to dominate world politics.
Austria-Hungary:
Expand its territory at the expense of Russia, Romania, Serbia;
Take away from Russia the role of "defender of all Slavic peoples";
Strengthen the authority of the imperial power through a victorious war;
Suppress the growing anti-Austrian sentiments among the peoples of the multinational empire.
Faced with interests with Russia, Austria-Hungary found itself in the same bloc with Germany.
Italy:
The young state sought to strengthen its authority in Europe;
Hoped to get territorial acquisitions in Europe and in the colonies.
However, Italy had very limited capabilities for waging war, therefore, at the beginning of the war, it declared its neutrality and subsequently sided with the Entente.
Turkey:
Vied with Russia and Great Britain for dominance over the Black Sea straits and influence on Middle East politics;
She strove to suppress the growing national liberation movement of the enslaved Slavic peoples on her territory.
Occasion:
On June 28, 1914 in the capital of Bosnia - Sarajevo - a member of the secret Serbian patriotic organization "Young Bosnia" Gabriel Princip killed the nephew and heir of the Austro-Hungarian emperor Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia.
The beginning of the war:
On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia demanding that Austrian police be allowed into the country to investigate the murder. Serbia rejected this demand.
On July 29, Russia announced mobilization. Germany issued an ultimatum to Russia demanding an end to mobilization. Russia rejected the ultimatum.
August 1 Germany has declared war on Russia. This date is recognized as the beginning of the First World War.
| ENTENTE | TRIPLE ALLIANCE |
| Highly professional British Army and Navy; The inexhaustible human resources of the Russian army, the courage of Russian soldiers; BUT Industrial backwardness of Russia, poor development of communications. Corrupt and incompetent leadership of the Russian army; The British army is small. The allies are geographically cut off from each other. The French army was not prepared for a prolonged conflict; | The German army was the best in Europe in terms of training and organization; The German population was seized by high patriotism and belief in their great purpose. Highly equipped with heavy artillery, machine guns, submarines, a wide network of railways. The Austro-Hungarian army was built following the example of the German army. Strategic preparation for war. BUT the multinational composition of the Austro-Hungarian army |
Both sides were not ready for a long positional war, they did not expect that the infantry would lose the ability to move. The most striking example of the incorrect assessment of the nature of modern warfare by the commanders of both sides was the widespread opinion about the primary role of cavalry.
Schlieffen's plan.
Schlieffen plan - a strategic plan for a blitzkrieg, developed by the Chief of the General Staff of Germany von Schlieffen.
The essence of the plan: within the first month to defeat France, invading its territory through Belgium, because Russia will need at least a month and a half to fully mobilize and concentrate its troops on the border. Then it was planned to transfer all German troops against Russia and end the war in two months.
However, from the first days, events did not develop as planned by the German command:
Belgium resisted strongly;
France launched an offensive on German territory, invaded Alsace and Lorraine;
Great Britain entered the war;
Russia launched an offensive without waiting for the full deployment of its troops.
By September, the plan for a lightning war was thwarted.
The course of hostilities. (independent work of students)
Examine the course of hostilities from available sources and assess them from the point of view of one of the belligerents
| date | Event | Result |
| 5 - 12 September 1914 August - September 1914 October 1914 December 1914 | Battle of the Marne Battle of Galicia Battle of Tannenberg Austro-Hungarian troops launched an offensive against Serbia. Turkey entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance, declaring war on Russia, Great Britain and France. Great Britain established a continental naval blockade of Germany Serbian army counteroffensive Sarakamysh operation (Transcaucasia) | Anglo-French troops stopped the advance of the German army. A 600 km Western2 front was formed from the Swiss borders to the Atlantic coast. Germany is forced to wage a war on two fronts. The Russian army occupied Lvov. The German army surrounded the Russian army. Russia lost about 20 thousand people killed and was forced to leave East Prussia. They seized 45% of the territory of Serbia, including the capital, Belgrade. The Caucasian Front was formed. German cruisers entered the Black Sea and fired at Odessa, Sevastopol, Novorossiysk, Feodosia. A small German fleet was locked up in the ports of the North and Baltic seas. The territory of Serbia was cleared of the troops of the Habsburg empire, the Serbian troops continued their offensive in the territory of Austria-Hungary. The Nis Declaration was adopted, in which the strategic goal of Serbia in the war was formulated: the unification of all South Slavic lands around the Serbian dynasty of Karageorgievich. The Russian army defeated the Turkish army and transferred the hostilities to Turkey. |
Results of the 1914 military campaign:
The strategic plans of the countries of the Quadruple Alliance were thwarted, the plan of lightning war failed. Germany is forced to wage a war on two fronts.
The war acquired a protracted nature, turning into a positional ("sit-down", trench) war. The parties abandoned large-scale hostilities, which were now mainly defensive in nature.
The war demanded the mobilization of all economic and human resources of the belligerent states. The war involved 38 states, in which about 75% of the population lived, more than 70 million men fought in the active armies.
| date | Event | Result |
| January 1915 February - March 1915 April 1915 May 1915 Autumn 1915 | German aircraft began raiding the east coast of England. Anglo-German naval battle at Dogger Banks in the North Sea The beginning of the offensive of the Russian army in the Carpathians The offensive of the French in Champagne. British offensive on Nevstal Russian troops captured the fortress of Przemysl Germany declared unlimited submarine war on Great Britain Anglo-French fleet attacked the Dardanelles (Turkish fortifications) German gas attack near Ypir (chlorine) Entente troops landed in the Gallipolli region (Turkey) Counteroffensive of the German-Austrian army on the Eastern Front Italy withdrew from the Triple Alliance and entered the war on the side of the Entente German submarine sank the huge American passenger liner Lusitania Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance by attacking Serbia | The German cruiser "Blucher" was sunk These actions did not bring tangible results to the allies. Over 100 thousand Austrians were taken prisoner. The Austro-German command concentrated its main forces on the Eastern Front. The waters around England and Ireland were declared a war zone and any ship in these waters would be un |
According to the decisions of the Yalta and Potsdam conferences of the heads of the great powers (1945) on the post-war structure of Europe, the countries of Eastern and Southeastern Europe were included in the sphere of interests of the USSR. In most of them, the Communist parties were popular, since they were the organizers of the anti-fascist resistance. Until 1948, the Soviet leadership avoided gross interference in the affairs of the "people's democracies". However, with the deployment of the Cold War, especially after the creation of the NATO bloc, such interference became evident. This led to a conflict with Yugoslavia, whose leadership was oriented towards building socialism, but showed great independence. After Stalin's death, the "ideological chauvinism" of the Soviet leadership did not disappear, but rather intensified. Although there was a relative reconciliation with Yugoslavia, the Soviet leadership (N.S. Khrushchev, L.I.Brezhnev) constantly clashed with the leaders of Albania, China, North Korea, Cuba, Romania, who were pursuing an independent course. The conflict with China was especially acute, right up to the armed clashes in 1969.
In Europe, at the beginning of the period we are studying, there was a bloc of socialist countries, the organizational structures of which were the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD) and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). The weight of the socialist system in the world economy was significant enough: in 1980, the USSR accounted for 25% of world industrial production, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic and Romania were among the ten leading industrial powers in the world.
However, the degree of rootedness of state socialism of the Soviet type was not too high, it was the less, the more obediently the leaders of the countries followed the Soviet recipes. Political regimes of European socialist countries by the 1980s. resembled the Soviet liberal-bureaucratic regime (1953-1991), with the political and ideological monopoly of the ruling party, implemented by relatively soft methods. Throughout the post-war period, the Western Bloc sought to separate the socialist countries from the USSR, which was the most important task of the special services.
In the Polish People's Republic (PNR) at the turn of the 1970s and 1980s. real Soviet-style socialism entered a state of crisis. Then the independent trade union "Solidarity" emerged, headed by L. Walesa, an electrician at the local shipyard. became an opposition force. Soon, Solidarity turned into a massive organized social and political movement (up to 10 million members) and began attempts to seize power from the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP). In December 1981, the new President of Poland, General W. Jaruzelski, who was popular in the country, imposed martial law and arrested about 5 thousand trade union activists, martial law was introduced in the country, Solidarity was banned, but its influence remained.
In the second half of the 1980s. in the part of Europe controlled by the USSR, they noticed that Gorbachev's perestroika was anti-socialist and pro-Western. This inspired a political opposition that existed and was sometimes active throughout the socialist period. Anti-socialist and anti-Soviet movements in Eastern Europe have traditionally been called "democratic" in the West.
Thus, the strike performances organized by Solidarity in the summer of 1988 forced the communists to negotiate with the Solidarity leadership. In connection with the beginning of "perestroika" in the USSR, V. Jaruzelski and his entourage were forced to agree to the legalization of the activities of Solidarity, to competitive parliamentary elections, to reform the institution of the country's president and to create a second chamber in the Sejm - the Senate.
The June 1989 elections ended with the victory of Solidarity, and its faction in the Diet formed a government headed by T. Mazowiecki. In 1990, the leader of Solidarity, L. Walesa, was elected president of the country. He supported L. Balcerowicz's plan for radical market reforms, which was in fact developed by the IMF and the World Bank. With the active participation of the new president, Poland began to move closer to NATO and the European community. The economic difficulties associated with mass privatization, as well as the discovery of secret ties in the past with the secret services of some figures from Walesa's entourage and himself led to the victory of A. Kwasniewski, a former active communist, during the 1995 presidential elections.
Already in the early 1990s. Russian troops were withdrawn from the country. By this time, the Warsaw Pact and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance had already ceased to exist. In 1994, Poland announced its desire to enter Western structures, which it succeeded: in 1999, despite diplomatic condemnation from Russia, it became a NATO member, and in 2004 - a member of the European Union. In recent years (during the reign of the Kaczynski brothers), difficulties in Russian-Polish relations have been growing due to mutual economic and political claims. Poland even blocked the signing in 2006 of a new EU-Russia cooperation agreement. Currently, the Polish leadership agrees to the deployment of American missile defense facilities in the country, which further complicates the situation.
It should be noted that Poland is the most significant state in the CEE region in terms of territory and population (36 million people) and, in principle, relations with it are important.
In the fall of 1989 in Czechoslovakia (Czechoslovakia), the so-called. Velvet revolution. This state arose in 1919. As a result of the Munich agreement (September 1938) between the Western powers and Hitler's Germany, in March 1939 Czechoslovakia ceased to exist. Bohemia was annexed to the Reich with the status of a protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Its powerful military-industrial complex worked for Germany until the end of World War II. There was no noticeable resistance or sabotage. Until June 22, 1941, the USSR maintained formal diplomatic relations with Slovakia, formally independent, but really controlled by the Reich.
Already during the war, close relations were established between the Czechoslovakian émigré government and Moscow. In 1945, the Treaty of Friendship was signed between Czechoslovakia and the USSR. At the same time, Czechoslovakia renounced its rights to the Transcarpathian Ukraine, which had previously been part of it. In the early post-war years, with close relations with the Soviet Union, the main democratic institutions remained in Czechoslovakia. The then popularity of the USSR contributed to the fact that the influence of the Czechoslovak communists was very great. In February 1948, with the support of the USSR, they pushed other political forces out of power and established a regime in the country that did not differ from those that were being formed at that time in the entire East European region.
Until the end of the 1960s. in Czechoslovakia, there was no noticeable strong anti-Soviet sentiment. The situation was changed by the events of 1968, when an attempt was made in Czechoslovakia to liberalize the existing communist regime, which aroused the fears and suspicions of the Soviet leadership. The USSR and other countries - participants of the Warsaw Pact introduced their troops to the territory of Czechoslovakia, which eventually led to the termination of reforms and radical changes in the leadership of the country and the Communist Party. After that, at the level of mass consciousness, a reaction of alienation from the "older brother" arose.
In Czechoslovakia, after the beginning of "perestroika" in the USSR, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine G. Husak refused to change the political course and enter into a dialogue with the opposition, and in 1988 was forced to resign as leader. In November 1989, the “Velvet Revolution” took place in Czechoslovakia, during which, under the pressure of mass peaceful protests, the communists were forced to agree to the formation of a government with the participation of representatives of the democratic opposition. A. Dubcek became the speaker of parliament, and V. Havel, a democratic writer, became the president.
Prague embarked on a course of establishing close relations with Western countries. In 1992, Russian troops were withdrawn from the country, and in 1993 this state itself disintegrated (without serious conflicts) into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. V. Havel was elected President of the Czech Republic. The desire of both states to integrate into Western structures remained, however, the Czech Republic, as an economically more developed country, was moving towards this faster and already in 1999 became a NATO member. Slovakia joined this organization only in 2004. In the same year, both states became members of the EU. Slovakia during the 1990s. showed more interest in cooperation with Russia, especially in the economic sphere, however, things did not go beyond declarations and statements.
Unlike Czechoslovakia, Hungary was an ally of Hitler's Germany and was defeated along with it. The country's territory was occupied by Soviet troops, and the USSR actively influenced the development of Hungarian political processes. By 1949, the Stalinist regime was established in Hungary, headed by the leader of the local Communist Party, F. Rakosi. Contrary to the existing national traditions, the country began to copy in detail the Soviet model of socialism, which led to an aggravation of socio-economic and political contradictions. The influence of the pro-fascist elements, which carried out anti-communist and anti-Semitic propaganda, remained strong. The consequence of these contradictions was a deep internal political crisis in Hungary, which broke out in the fall of 1956 in the form of armed clashes and almost led to the collapse of Hungarian socialism. After the events of 1956, the Soviet Union authorized the conduct of a fairly reasonable and independent economic policy in Hungary, which made the country relatively prosperous within the socialist camp. But, on the other hand, the changes that have taken place have to some extent eroded the ideological foundations of the existing regime, so Hungary, like Poland, began to dismantle the socialist system earlier than other Eastern European countries.
In October 1989, in Hungary, the communists (Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party) were forced to agree to the adoption of a law on the multi-party system and party activities. And then the country's constitution was amended. They provided for "a peaceful political transition to the rule of law, in which a multi-party system, parliamentary democracy and a socially oriented market economy are implemented." In the March 1990 elections to the Hungarian National Assembly, the Communists were defeated, and the Hungarian Democratic Forum won the majority of the seats in parliament. After that, any mention of socialism was excluded from the constitution. Unlike other countries in the region, Hungary's transition to "Western values" took place in an evolutionary way, but the general vector of its movement towards integration into European structures coincided with the vector of movement of other post-communist states of CEE. Hungary is a member of the EU and NATO.
The democratization of public and state life also took place in the GDR, where the democratic opposition won the first free elections in March 1990. Then there was the unification of Germany through the absorption of West Germany (FRG) of East Germany (GDR).
When considering the events of the end of 1989, it should be borne in mind that at the beginning of December 1989, during the meeting between M. Gorbachev and George W. Bush (Art.) In Malta, Gorbachev actually surrendered the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe to the West, more precisely, the United States.
Events in the countries of South-Eastern Europe developed extremely dramatically. It should be noted that the most significant states of this region have gained sovereignty with the active support of Russia. This applies to Bulgaria, Romania, as well as the former Yugoslavia of Serbia and Montenegro. Moreover, Russia often provided this assistance to the detriment of its own foreign policy interests, proceeding from the Pan-Slavic romanticism, which began to dominate public opinion in the second half of the 19th century. and retains a certain influence even now.
During the First World War, Bulgaria became an ally of the countries of the German bloc. In April 1941 Bulgaria took part in the German aggression against Yugoslavia and Greece, but the Bulgarian government avoided participating in hostilities against the USSR, citing strong Russophile sentiments among the population. After the Red Army reached the borders of Bulgaria on September 5, 1944, the USSR declared war on it, but there were practically no military actions, since the Bulgarian army refused to fight, and a change of power took place in the country. The government of the Fatherland Front declared war on Germany and its allies, and the Bulgarian troops at the final stage of the war fought on the side of the anti-Hitler coalition. In fact, already in 1944 the establishment of the communist regime began, which ended in 1948, when the People's Republic of Bulgaria was proclaimed.
Until the end of the 1980s. relations between the USSR and Bulgaria developed steadily; there were no significant anti-communist forces within the state. As in other countries of Eastern Europe, democratic changes in Bulgaria began at the end of 1989. At the same time, just like in other states of the region, the task of integration into Western structures was set almost immediately. Later, there was a sharp distance from Russia, with which the visa regime was established. At the moment Bulgaria is a NATO member, in 2004 it was admitted to the EU. Russian-Bulgarian relations have been in a state of stagnation for a long time, and mutual trade remains insignificant.
Romania, neighboring with Bulgaria, also actively participated in the war against the USSR from the very beginning, in the period 1941-1944. it included as provinces not only Bessarabia, but also the Northern Black Sea region, including Odessa. At the same time, the state tried to maintain contacts with Great Britain and the USA. On August 23, 1944, a coup d'etat took place in Romania, she broke the bloc with Germany and joined the anti-Hitler coalition .. It is noteworthy that the Romanian king Mihai was awarded the highest USSR award - the Order of Victory. However, already in 1946 the monarchy in Romania was abolished, and a communist regime was established in the country. Soviet-Romanian relations since the late 1950s. developed somewhat differently than the relations of the USSR with other Eastern European countries. After Nicolae Ceausescu came to power in 1965, the Socialist Republic of Romania (SRR) distanced itself from the Soviet Union. The Romanian leadership openly expressed its negative attitude towards the entry of Warsaw Pact troops into Czechoslovakia in 1968. Romania was the only socialist country that retained diplomatic relations with Israel after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war.In addition, Romania demonstrated a certain level of independence within the framework of the Warsaw Pact and CMEA ... By 1980, the country's powerful economic development brought it to the top ten industrialized countries of the world. In December 1989, as a result of an armed putsch with an imitation of a "mass popular uprising", the N. Ceausescu regime (rather liberal, but with a strong cult of the president's personality) was overthrown. The president himself, together with his wife E. Ceausescu, was killed. This was presented by Western and Soviet (Gorbachev's) propaganda as the overthrow of the "hated communist regime."
After the fall of socialism, Romania, like other Eastern European countries, embarked on a course of integration with the West.However, the rapid decline in living standards turned Romania into one of the poorest countries in Europe, which did not allow the rapid implementation of its policy goal - accession to the EU. This happened only in 2007. Relations with Russia are in a state of stagnation, while in Romania itself there is a popular unitarian sentiment regarding unification with Moldova.
The most difficult events since the early 1990s unfolded in Yugoslavia. Russia throughout the 19th century. actively contributed to the desire of Serbia for independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1878, as a result of the Russian-Turkish war, the independence of Serbia was recognized by Istanbul. The country was proclaimed a kingdom. At the forefront of the country's foreign policy was the task of uniting the southern Slavs into a single state. This goal was achieved after the First World War, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was formed (since 1929 - Yugoslavia).
In foreign policy, the country remained focused on the Entente. From the very beginning, ethnic contradictions emerged within the state, primarily between Serbs and Croats. On April 6, 1941, Germany and its allies began a war against Yugoslavia and Greece. On April 10, Croatia declared independence, and on the 17th, Yugoslavia capitulated. A very strong partisan movement was formed in the country, but the decisive role in the liberation of Yugoslavia was played by the Red Army, which entered its territory in October 1944. On April 11, 1945, a friendship agreement was signed between the countries. However, due to the desire of the Yugoslav communists to maintain independence in decision-making in the summer of 1948, the treaty was denounced, and relations between the countries ceased. They returned to normal only in 1955, when the treaty on friendly relations was signed again. Nevertheless, Yugoslavia never became a member of the Warsaw Pact, and had observer status in the CMEA. In the late 1980s. in the country, on the one hand, the monopoly of the communists on power is ending, on the other, disintegration processes are taking place, actively supported by the West.
"Perestroika" in the USSR and the weakening of the position of the communists in Eastern Europe led to significant changes in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in which Serbia and its communist leadership were dominant. At the same time, Serbia sought to preserve the existing federation, while Slovenia and Croatia insisted on transforming it into a confederation (1991). In June 1991, the Assembly of Slovenia proclaimed its independence, and the Croatian Council adopted the declaration of the independence of Croatia. Then a regular army was sent from Belgrade against them, but the Croats and Slovenes began to resist by force of arms.
Belgrade's attempts with the help of troops to prevent the independence of Croatia and Slovenia ended in failure due to the support of the separatists from the European Union and NATO. Then part of the Serb population of Croatia, supported by Belgrade, began an armed struggle against the independence of Croatia. Serbian troops took part in the conflict, a lot of blood was shed, the conflict between Croatia and Serbia subsided after the introduction of UN peacekeeping forces in Croatia in February 1992. Even more bloody events accompanied the gaining of independence by Bosnia and Herzegovina. The latter led to the collapse of the country in 1991: Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as Macedonia declared their independence; and only the latter managed to do it peacefully. In other cases, there was an armed conflict with the central government. Russia recognized their independence, but supported the Serbs in all conflicts. This support was primarily due to civilizational factors and led to complications in Russia's relations both with other countries of the region and with the main powers of the West. This was most evident in 1999 during the Kosovo crisis and NATO's direct aggression against Yugoslavia, which now consisted only of Serbia and Montenegro. Russia, supporting Belgrade, actually found itself on the brink of a diplomatic conflict with Western countries. At the same time, Serbia, where pro-Western forces came to power, during this entire period did not demonstrate readiness for broad economic cooperation, and in 2000, almost immediately after the end of the Kosovo crisis, a visa regime was introduced between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Russian Federation.
In 2008, Russia supported Serbia's aspirations to preserve territorial integrity and condemned Western countries for recognizing the independence of the province of Kosovo.
In Albania, the communist regime was dismantled in 1992.
In the early 1990s. in a number of Eastern European states, new constitutions were adopted, or important changes to existing ones. They changed not only the names of states, but also the essence of the social and political system, and perceived "Western democratic values." The constitutions also consolidated the changes in the functions of the head of state, in the role of which the collective body ceased to act. The post of the president of the state was restored everywhere.
The period under review was peaceful and stable for the countries of Western Europe and the United States in comparison with the first half of the century, which accounted for several European wars and two world wars, two series of revolutionary events. The dominant development of the named group of states in the second half of the XX century. it is considered to be significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from industrial to post-industrial society. However, even in these decades, the countries of the Western world faced a number of complex problems, crisis situations, shocks - all those that are called "challenges of the time." These were large-scale events and processes in different areas, such as technological and information revolutions, the collapse of colonial empires, the global economic crises of 1974-1975. and 1980-1982, social performances in the 60-70s. XX century, separatist movements, etc. All of them demanded one or another restructuring of economic and social relations, the choice of ways for further development, compromises or toughening of political courses. In this regard, various political forces replaced in power, mainly conservatives and liberals, who tried to strengthen their positions in the changing world.
The first post-war years in European countries became a time of acute struggle, primarily around issues of social structure, political foundations of states. In a number of countries, for example in France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And for Germany, Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, the creation of new democratic states. Significant political battles unfolded around elections to constituent assemblies, development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, for example, the events associated with the choice of a monarchical or republican form of state went down in history as the "battle for the republic" (the country was proclaimed a republic as a result of a referendum on June 18, 1946).
It was then that the forces that most actively participated in the struggle for power and influence in society over the next decades made themselves known. On the left flank were the Social Democrats and Communists. At the final stage of the war (especially after 1943, when the Comintern was disbanded), the members of these parties collaborated in the Resistance movement, later in the first post-war governments (in France, in 1944, a conciliatory committee of communists and socialists was created, in Italy in 1946 . agreement on unity of action was signed). Representatives of both left-wing parties were part of the coalition governments in France in 1944-1947, in Italy in 1945-1947. But fundamental differences between the communist and socialist parties persisted, moreover, in the post-war years, many social democratic parties excluded from their programs the tasks of establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat, adopted the concept of social society, in essence, switched to liberal positions.
In the conservative camp since the mid-40s. the most influential were the parties that combined the representation of the interests of large industrialists and financiers with the advancement of Christian values \u200b\u200bas the enduring ideological foundations that unite different social strata. These included the Christian Democratic Party (CDP) in Italy (founded in 1943), the Republican People's Movement (MRP) in France (founded in 1945), the Christian Democratic Union (since 1945 - CDU, since 1950 - CDU / CSU bloc) in Germany. The named parties sought to gain widespread support in society and emphasized their adherence to the principles of democracy. Thus, the first CDU program (1947) included slogans reflecting the spirit of the times of “socialization” of a number of sectors of the economy, “complicity” of workers in managing enterprises. And in Italy, during the 1946 referendum, the majority of the CDP members voted for a republic, not a monarchy. The confrontation between the right, conservative and left, socialist parties and constituted the main line in the political history of Western European countries in the second half of the XX century. At the same time, you can see how changes in the economic and social situation in some years moved the political pendulum to the left and then to the right.
From recovery to stability (1945-1950s)
After the end of the war, coalition governments were established in most Western European countries, in which representatives of the left forces - socialists and, in some cases, communists - played a decisive role. The main activities of these governments were the restoration of democratic freedoms, the purge of the state apparatus from members of the fascist movement, persons who collaborated with the occupiers. The most significant step in the economic sphere was the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and enterprises. In France, 5 largest banks, the coal industry, Renault automobile plants (the owner of which collaborated with the occupation regime), and several aviation enterprises were nationalized. The share of the public sector in industrial output has reached 20-25%. In Great Britain, where he was in power in 1945-1951. were the Laborites, power plants, the coal and gas industry, railways, transport, individual airlines, and steel plants became the property of the state. As a rule, these were important, but far from the most prosperous and profitable enterprises; on the contrary, they required significant capital investments. In addition, significant compensation was paid to the former owners of the nationalized enterprises. Nevertheless, nationalization and government regulation were viewed by social democratic leaders as the highest achievement on the road to a "social economy."
Constitutions adopted in Western European countries in the second half of the 40s. - in 1946 in France (the constitution of the Fourth Republic), in 1947 in Italy (entered into force on January 1, 1948), in 1949 in West Germany, they became the most democratic constitutions in the history of these countries. Thus, in the French constitution of 1946, in addition to democratic rights, the rights to work, rest, social security, education, the rights of workers to participate in the management of enterprises, trade union and political activity, the right to strike "within the framework of the laws", etc. were proclaimed.
In accordance with the provisions of the constitutions, many countries created social insurance systems, which included pensions, sickness and unemployment benefits, and assistance to large families. A 40-42-hour week was established, and paid holidays were introduced. This was done largely under pressure from the workers. For example, in England in 1945, 50 thousand dockers went on strike to achieve a reduction in the working week to 40 hours and the introduction of two weeks of paid holidays.
A special period in the history of Western European countries was the 50s. It was a time of rapid economic development (the growth of industrial production reached 5-6% per year). The post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. The scientific and technological revolution began, one of the main manifestations of which was the automation of production. The qualifications of the workers who operated the automatic lines and systems increased, and their wages also increased.
In the UK, the level of wages in the 50s. increased by an average of 5% per year while prices increased by 3% per year. In Germany during the 50s. real wages doubled. True, in some countries, for example in Italy, Austria, the indicators were not so significant. In addition, governments periodically "freeze" wages (forbidding an increase). This provoked protests and workers' strikes.
The economic upturn in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy was particularly noticeable. In the postwar years, the economy here was adjusted more difficult and slower than in other countries. Against this background, the situation in the 50s. was regarded as an "economic miracle". It became possible due to the restructuring of industry on a new technological basis, the creation of new industries (petrochemistry, electronics, the production of synthetic fibers, etc.), the industrialization of agricultural regions. American aid under the Marshall Plan was a significant help. A favorable condition for raising production was that in the post-war years there was a great demand for various industrial goods. On the other hand, there was a significant reserve of cheap labor (at the expense of immigrants, people from the countryside).
The economic recovery was accompanied by social stability. In the conditions of reduced unemployment, relative stability of prices, and growth in wages, workers' performances were reduced to a minimum. Their growth began in the late 1950s, when some negative consequences of automation appeared - job cuts, etc.
The period of stable development coincided with the coming to power of the Conservatives. Thus, in the FRG the name of K. Adenauer, who served as chancellor in 1949-1963, was associated with the revival of the German state, and L. Erhard was called the "father of an economic miracle." Christian Democrats partly preserved the facade of "social policy", spoke of a society of general welfare, social guarantees for working people. But state intervention in the economy was curtailed. In the FRG, the theory of "social market economy" was established, focused on supporting private property and free competition. In England, the conservative governments of W. Churchill, and then A. Eden, carried out the reprivatization of some of the previously nationalized industries and enterprises (motor transport, steel works, etc.). In many countries, with the coming to power of the conservatives, an offensive began on the political rights and freedoms proclaimed after the war, laws were adopted according to which citizens were persecuted for political reasons, the Communist Party was banned in the FRG.
Changes in the 60s
After a decade of stability in the life of Western European states, a period of upheavals and changes has come, associated with both the problems of internal development and the collapse of the colonial empires.
So, in France by the end of the 50s. there was a crisis situation caused by the frequent change of governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (loss of Indochina, Tunisia and Morocco, the war in Algeria), the deterioration of the situation of the working people. In such an environment, the idea of \u200b\u200b"strong power" was gaining increasing support, of which General Charles de Gaulle was an active supporter. In May 1958, the command of the French troops in Algeria refused to obey the government until Charles de Gaulle returned to it. The general declared that he was "ready to take over the power of the Republic" subject to the abolition of the 1946 constitution and granting him extraordinary powers. In the fall of 1958, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which provided the head of state with the broadest rights, and in December de Gaulle was elected president of France. Having established a "regime of personal power", he sought to resist attempts to weaken the state from within and from without. But on the issue of colonies, being a realistic politician, he soon decided that it was better to carry out decolonization "from above", while retaining influence in the former possessions, than to wait for the shameful exile, for example, from Algeria, which was fighting for independence. In 1960, de Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of the Algerians to decide their fate provoked an anti-government revolt by the military. All in 1962 Algeria gained independence.
In the 60s. in European countries, speeches of different strata of the population under different slogans have become more frequent. In France in 1961-1962. demonstrations and strikes were organized demanding an end to the rebellion of the ultra-colonialist forces opposing the granting of independence to Algeria. In Italy, there were massive protests against the activation of neo-fascists. The workers made both economic and political demands. White-collar workers - highly qualified workers, white-collar workers - were involved in the fight for higher wages.
The highest point of social action during this period was the events of May - June 1968 in France. Beginning as a demonstration of Parisian students demanding the democratization of the higher education system, they soon escalated into mass demonstrations and a general strike (the number of strikers in the country exceeded 10 million). Workers at a number of Renault automobile plants occupied their factories. The government was forced to make concessions. The strike participants achieved an increase in wages by 10-19%, an increase in vacations, and the expansion of trade union rights. These events proved to be a serious test for the authorities. In April 1969, President de Gaulle put forward a bill on the reorganization of local government to a referendum, but the majority of those who voted rejected the bill. After that, Charles de Gaulle resigned. In June 1969, a representative of the Gaullist party, J. Pompidou, was elected the country's new president.
1968 was marked by an exacerbation of the situation in Northern Ireland, where the civil rights movement intensified. Clashes between representatives of the Catholic population and the police escalated into an armed conflict, in which both Protestant and Catholic extremist groups were involved. The government sent troops to Ulster. The crisis, sometimes worsening, then weakening, dragged on for three decades.
A wave of social action has brought about political change in most Western European countries. In many of them in the 60s. the social democratic and socialist parties came to power. In the Federal Republic of Germany, at the end of 1966, representatives of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) entered the coalition government with the CDU / CSU, and since 1969 they themselves have formed a government in a bloc with the Free Democratic Party (FDP). In Austria in 1970-1971. for the first time in the history of the country, the Socialist Party came to power. In Italy, the basis of post-war governments was the Christian Democratic Party (CDP), which entered into a coalition with either the left or the right parties. In the 60s. her partners were the left - social democrats and socialists. The leader of the Social Democrats D. Saragat was elected president of the country.
Despite the differences in situations in different countries, the policy of the Social Democrats had some common features. They considered their main, “never ending task” to be the creation of a “social society”, the main values \u200b\u200bof which were proclaimed freedom, justice and solidarity. They viewed themselves as representatives of the interests of not only the workers, but also of other strata of the population (from the 70s and 80s, these parties began to rely on the so-called “new middle strata” - the scientific and technical intelligentsia, office workers). In the economic sphere, the Social Democrats advocated a combination of different forms of ownership - private, state, etc. The key provision of their programs was the thesis of state regulation of the economy. The attitude to the market was expressed by the motto: "Competition - as far as possible, planning - as necessary". Particular importance was attached to the "democratic participation" of the working people in solving the issues of organizing production, prices and wages.
In Sweden, where the Social Democrats have been in power for several decades, the concept of "functional socialism" was formulated. It was assumed that the private owner should not be deprived of his property, but should be gradually involved in the performance of public functions through the redistribution of profits. The state in Sweden owned about 6% of production capacity, but the share of public consumption in the gross national product (GNP) in the early 70s. was about 30%.
Social democratic and socialist governments allocated significant funds for education, health care, social security. To reduce the unemployment rate, special training and retraining programs for the labor force were adopted. Advancement in solving social problems was one of the most significant achievements of social democratic governments. However, the negative consequences of their policies soon emerged - excessive "overregulation", bureaucratization of public and economic management, overstretching of the state budget. A part of the population began to establish the psychology of social dependency, when people, without working, expected to receive in the form of social assistance as much as those who worked hard. These "costs" drew criticism from conservative forces.
An important aspect of the activity of the social democratic governments of the Western European states was the change in foreign policy. Particularly significant steps in this direction have been made in the Federal Republic of Germany. The government that came to power in 1969, headed by Chancellor W. Brandt (SPD) and Vice-Chancellor and Foreign Minister V. Scheel (FDP), made a fundamental turn in the "Eastern policy", concluding in 1970-1973. bilateral treaties with the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, confirming the inviolability of the borders between the FRG and Poland, the FRG and the GDR. The aforementioned treaties, as well as the quadripartite agreements on West Berlin signed by representatives of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France in September 1971, created a real basis for expanding international contacts and mutual understanding in Europe. 4. The fall of authoritarian regimes in Portugal, Greece, Spain. In the mid 70s. significant political changes have taken place in the states of South-Western and Southern Europe.
In Portugal, as a result of the April 1974 revolution, an authoritarian regime was overthrown. The political upheaval carried out by the Armed Forces Movement in the capital led to a change of power on the ground. The first post-revolutionary governments (1974-1975), consisting of the leaders of the Armed Forces Movement and the Communists, focused on the tasks of defaching and establishing democratic orders, decolonizing Portugal's African possessions, carrying out agrarian reform, adopting a new constitution for the country, and improving the living conditions of workers. The largest enterprises and banks were nationalized, and workers' control was introduced. Subsequently, the right-wing bloc Democratic Alliance (1979-1983) came to power, which tried to curtail the reforms begun earlier, and then the coalition government of the socialist and social-democratic parties led by the leader of the socialists M. Soares (1983-1985).
In Greece, in 1974, the regime of the "black colonels" was replaced by a civilian government made up of representatives of the conservative bourgeoisie. It did not carry out major transformations. In 1981 -1989. and since 1993 the party of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) was in power, a course of democratization of the political system and social reforms was carried out.
In Spain, after the death of F. Franco in 1975, King Juan Carlos I became the head of state. With his approval, the transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one began. The government headed by A. Suarez restored democratic freedoms and lifted the ban on the activities of political parties. In December 1978, a constitution was adopted proclaiming Spain a social and legal state. Since 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party has been in power, its leader F. Gonzalez headed the country's government. Particular attention was paid to measures to raise production and create jobs. In the first half of the 1980s. the government carried out a number of important social measures (shortening the working week, increasing vacations, passing laws expanding the rights of workers at enterprises, etc.). The party strove for social stability, achieving harmony between different strata of Spanish society. The result of the policy of the socialists, who were in power continuously until 1996, was the completion of the peaceful transition from a dictatorship to a democratic society.
Neoconservatives and liberals in the last decades of the XX - early XXI century.
Crisis 1974-1975 seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. Changes were needed, a restructuring of the economy. Under the existing economic and social policy, there were no resources for it, and state regulation of the economy did not work. Conservatives tried to answer the challenge of the time. Their orientation towards a free market economy, private entrepreneurship and initiative was well aligned with the objective need for extensive investment in production.
In the late 70s - early 80s. conservatives have come to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained ruling until 1997) - In 1980, Republican R. Reagan was elected President of the United States, who won the 1984 elections. In Germany, a coalition of the CDU / CSU and the FDP came to power, the post of chancellor was taken by G. Kohl. The long-term rule of the Social Democrats in the Nordic countries was interrupted. They were defeated in the 1976 elections in Sweden and Denmark, and in 1981 in Norway.
The leaders who came to power during this period were not in vain called the new conservatives. They showed that they know how to look ahead, are capable of changes. They were distinguished by political flexibility and assertiveness, appeal to the general population. Thus, the British Conservatives, headed by M. Thatcher, defended the "true values \u200b\u200bof British society", which included hard work and thrift; disregard for lazy people; independence, self-reliance and striving for individual success; respect for laws, religion, family and community foundations; contributing to the preservation and enhancement of the national greatness of Britain. Also used were the slogans of creating a "democracy of owners".
The main components of the neoconservative policy were the privatization of the public sector and the curtailment of state regulation of the economy; course towards a free market economy; cuts in social spending; reduction of income taxes (which contributed to the revitalization of entrepreneurial activity). In social policy, equalization and the principle of redistribution of profits were rejected. The first steps of the neoconservatives in foreign policy led to a new round of the arms race, aggravation of the international situation (a striking manifestation of this was the war between Great Britain and Argentina over the Falkland Islands in 1983).
Encouraging private entrepreneurship, the course towards the modernization of production contributed to the dynamic development of the economy, its restructuring in accordance with the needs of the unfolding information revolution. Thus, conservatives have proven that they are capable of transforming society. In the Federal Republic of Germany, the most important historical event was added to the achievements of this period - the unification of Germany in 1990, participation in which put G. Kohl among the most significant figures in German history. At the same time, during the years of the Conservatives' rule, various groups of the population did not stop protesting for social and civil rights (including the strike of British miners in 1984-1985, protests in the FRG against the deployment of American missiles, etc.).
In the late 90s. in many European countries liberals have replaced conservatives in power. In 1997, the Labor government headed by E. Blair came to power in Great Britain, and in France, following the results of parliamentary elections, a government of representatives of left-wing parties was formed. In 1998, the leader of the Social Democratic Party G. Schroeder became the Chancellor of Germany. In 2005, he was replaced as chancellor by the representative of the CDU / CSU bloc A. Merkel, who headed the government of the “grand coalition”, consisting of representatives of Christian Democrats and Social Democrats. Earlier in France, the left government was replaced by a government made up of representatives of the right parties. However, in the mid-10s. XXI century. in Spain and Italy, as a result of parliamentary elections, right-wing governments were forced to cede power to governments led by socialists.
In the summer of 1980, workers began to protest in Poland, triggered by yet another price increase. Gradually, they covered the cities of the northern coast of the country. In Gdansk, on the basis of the interfactory strike committee, the trade union association Solidarity was formed.
Under the banner of Solidarity
Its participants presented "21 demands" to the authorities. This document contained both economic and political demands, including: to recognize free trade unions independent of the state and the right of workers to strike, end persecution for their beliefs, expand access of public and religious organizations to the media, etc. Head of the All-Polish Commission the trade union "Solidarity" was elected electrician L. Walesa.
The expanding influence of the trade union association, which began to grow into a political movement, pushed the government to introduce martial law in the country in December 1981. The activities of "Solidarity" were banned, its leaders were interned (placed under house arrest). But the authorities could not eliminate the urgent crisis.
In June 1989, parliamentary elections were held in Poland on a multi-party basis. They won "Solidarity". The new coalition government was headed by the representative of Solidarity T. Mazovetsky. In December 1990, L. Walesa was elected president of the country.
Lech Walesa was born in 1943 into a peasant family. He graduated from the school of agricultural mechanization, began working as an electrician. In 1967 he became an electrician at the shipyard. Lenin in Gdansk. In 1970 and 1979-1980. - Member of the strike committee of the shipyard. One of the organizers and leaders of the Solidarity trade union. In December 1981 he was interned, in 1983 he returned to the shipyard as an electrician. In 1990-1995. - President of the Republic of Poland. L. Walesa's extraordinary political destiny was born of both time and personal qualities of this person. Publicists noted that he was a "typical Pole", a deeply religious Catholic, a family man. At the same time, it is no coincidence that he was called "a flexible man of iron." He was distinguished not only by the pronounced abilities of a political fighter and an orator, but also by the ability to choose his own path, to perform actions that neither opponents nor associates expected from him.
1989-1990s: big changes
Panorama of events
- August 1989 - The first Solidarity government was formed in Poland.
- November - December 1989 - mass demonstrations of the population and the displacement of the communist leadership in the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria.
- By June 1990 as a result of multi-party elections in all countries of Eastern Europe (except Albania) new governments and leaders came to power.
- March - April 1991 - the first parliamentary elections on a multi-party basis in Albania, since June a coalition government has been in power.
In less than two years, the government changed in eight countries of Eastern Europe. Why did it happen? This question can be asked on a country-by-country basis. You can also ask: why did this happen in all countries almost simultaneously?
Let's consider specific situations.
German Democratic Republic
Dates and Events
1989 year
- October - massive anti-government demonstrations in different cities, their dispersal, arrests of participants, the rise of a public movement for the renewal of the existing system.
- November 9 - the Berlin Wall fell.
- By the end of November over 100 political parties and social movements have emerged in the country.
- December 1st - abolished the 1st article of the Constitution of the GDR (on the leading role of the Socialist Unified Party of Germany).
- December - mass withdrawal of SED members from the party; by January 1990, of the previous 2.3 million, 1.1 million people remained in the party.
- December 10-11 and 16-17 - an extraordinary congress of the SED, its transformation into the Party of Democratic Socialism.
The fall of the Berlin wall
1990 year
- March - parliamentary elections, the victory of the conservative Alliance for Germany, headed by the Christian Democratic Union.
- April - the government of the "grand coalition" was formed, half of the posts in which were occupied by representatives of the CDU.
- July 1 - the agreement between the GDR and the FRG on the economic, monetary and social union entered into force.
- 3 october - the Treaty on the unification of Germany entered into force.
Czechoslovakia
Events named afterwards "Velvet revolution", began on November 17, 1989, on this day, students organized a demonstration in Prague in connection with the 50th anniversary of the anti-Nazi demonstration of Czech students during the German occupation. Demands for the democratization of society and the resignation of the government were heard during the demonstration. Law enforcement forces dispersed the demonstration, detained some of the participants, and several people were injured.
November 19 a protest demonstration took place in Prague with anti-government slogans and calls for a strike. On the same day, the Civic Forum, a social movement that put forward demands to remove a number of the country's leaders from their posts, was established, and the Socialist Party (disbanded in 1948) was restored. In support of public outcry, Prague theaters, including the National Theater, canceled the performances.
20 November in Prague, a 150,000-strong demonstration was held under the slogan "End to the rule of one party!", demonstrations began in different cities of the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
The government had to enter into negotiations with representatives of the Civil Forum. Parliament canceled articles of the constitution on the leading role of the Communist Party in society and the determining role of Marxism-Leninism in upbringing and education. On December 10, a coalition government was created, which included the communists, representatives of the Civil Forum, the Socialist and People's Parties. Some time later, A. Dubcek became the chairman of the Federal Assembly (Parliament). V. Havel was elected President of the country.
Vaclav Havel was born in 1936. Received an economic education. In the 1960s, he began working in the theater, became known as a playwright and writer. Participant of the "Prague Spring" 1968. After 1969 he was deprived of the opportunity to practice his profession, worked as a laborer. In the period from 1970 to 1989, he was imprisoned for political reasons three times. Since November 1989 - one of the leaders of the Civil Forum. In 1989-1992. - President of the Czechoslovak Republic. Since 1993 - the first president of the newly formed Czech Republic (he held this post from 1993-2003).
Romania
While major changes had already taken place in neighboring countries, the 14th Congress of the Communist Party was held in Romania on November 20-24, 1989. The five-hour report of the Party's General Secretary Nicolae Ceausescu on the successes achieved was accompanied by endless applause. In the hall the slogans "Ceausescu and the people!", "Ceausescu - communism!" Were heard. The congress greeted with great joy the news of Ceausescu's election to his post for a new term.
From publications in Romanian newspapers of that time:
“The imperialist forces, which are stepping up their efforts to undermine and destabilize socialism, speaking of its 'crisis', we answer with deeds: the whole country has turned into a huge construction site and a blossoming garden. And this is because Romanian socialism is a socialism of free labor, not a “market”, it does not leave cardinal development problems to chance and does not understand improvement, renewal, and restructuring as the restoration of capitalist forms. "
“The unanimous commitment to the decision to re-elect comrade N. Ceausescu to the post of General Secretary of the RCP is a political vote for the continuation of the tried and true creative course, as well as recognition of the heroic example of a revolutionary and patriot, the leader of our party and state. Together with the entire Romanian people, the writers, with a sense of full responsibility, join the proposal to re-elect Comrade N. Ceausescu to the post of head of our party. "
A month later, on December 21, at an official rally in the center of Bucharest, shouts of “Down with Ceausescu!” Were heard from the crowd instead of toasts. The actions of the army units directed against the demonstrators soon stopped. Realizing that the situation was out of control, N. Ceausescu and his wife E. Ceausescu (a famous party leader) fled from Bucharest. They were arrested the next day and brought to trial in a highly secretive tribunal. On December 26, 1989, the Romanian media reported about the court sentencing the Ceausescu couple to death (they were shot 15 minutes after the verdict was announced).
Already on December 23, Romanian television announced the creation of the Council of the National Salvation Front, which assumed full power. Ion Iliescu, once a Communist Party leader, became the chairman of the Council of the Federal Tax Service, who repeatedly ousted from party posts in the 1970s for opposition sentiments. In May 1990, I. Iliescu was elected president of the country.
The overall result of the events of 1989-1990. was the fall of communist regimes in all countries of Eastern Europe. The communist parties disintegrated, some of them transformed into parties of the social democratic type. New political forces and leaders came to power.
At a new stage
The “new people” in power were most often liberal politicians (in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic). In some cases, for example in Romania, these were former leaders of the Communist Parties who had switched to social democratic positions. The main measures of the new governments in the economic sphere included the transition to a market economy. Privatization (transfer to private hands) of state property began, and price controls were abolished. Social expenditures were significantly reduced, wages were “frozen”. The breakdown of the previously existing system was carried out in a number of cases by the most severe methods in the shortest possible time, for which it was called "shock therapy" (this option was carried out in Poland).
By the mid-1990s, the economic and social costs of reforms appeared: a decline in production and the ruin of hundreds of enterprises, massive unemployment, rising prices, stratification of society into a few rich and thousands of people living below the poverty line, etc. Governments responsible for reforms and their consequences, began to lose the support of the population. In the elections 1995-1996. in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, representatives of the socialists won. The positions of the Social Democrats in the Czech Republic have strengthened. In Poland, as a result of changes in public sentiment, the most popular politician L. Walesa in the early 1990s lost the presidential elections. In 1995 the Social Democrat A. Kwasniewski became the president of the country.
Changes in the foundations of the social system could not but affect national relations. Previously, rigid centralized systems tied each state into a single whole. With their fall, the road was opened not only for national self-determination, but also for the actions of nationalist and separatist forces. In 1991 -1992. the Yugoslav state collapsed. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia retained two of the six former Yugoslav republics - Serbia and Montenegro. Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia became independent states. However, the state demarcation was accompanied by an aggravation of ethno-national contradictions in each of the republics.
Bosnian crisis. A difficult situation has developed in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbs, Croats and Muslims historically coexisted here (the concept of “Muslims” in Bosnia is considered as a definition of nationality, although we are talking about the Slavic population who converted to Islam after the Turkish conquest in the 14th century). Ethnic differences were complemented by religious ones: in addition to the division into Christians and Muslims, the fact that the Serbs belong to the Orthodox Church, and the Croats to the Catholic Church, affected. In a single Serbo-Croatian language, there were two alphabets - Cyrillic (for Serbs) and Latin (for Croats).
Throughout the XX century. strong central power in the Yugoslav kingdom, and then in the federal socialist state, contained national contradictions. In the republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which separated from Yugoslavia, they manifested themselves with particular acuteness. The Serbs, who made up half of the population of Bosnia, refused to recognize the withdrawal from the Yugoslav federation and then proclaimed the Serbian Republic in Bosnia. In 1992-1994. an armed conflict broke out between Serbs, Muslims and Croats. It led to numerous casualties not only among the fighters, but also among the civilian population. In prison camps, in settlements, people were killed. Thousands of residents left their villages and towns and became refugees. To contain the internecine struggle, UN peacekeeping troops were sent to Bosnia. By the mid-1990s, military operations in Bosnia were stopped by the efforts of international diplomacy.
In 2006 Montenegro separated from Serbia following a plebiscite. The Republic of Yugoslavia ceased to exist.
IN Serbia after 1990, there was a crisis associated with the autonomous province of Kosovo, 90% of the population of which were Albanians (Muslims by religion). The limitation of the region's autonomy led to the self-proclamation of the "Republic of Kosovo". An armed conflict broke out. At the end of the 1990s, with international mediation, a negotiation process began between the Serbian leadership and the leaders of the Kosovar Albanians. In an effort to put pressure on Serbian President S. Milosevic, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO intervened in the conflict. In March 1999, NATO forces began bombing the territory of Yugoslavia. The crisis has grown to a European scale.
The peoples have chosen a different way of resolving national problems Czechoslovakia... In 1992, as a result of a referendum, a decision was made to partition the country. The section procedure was thoroughly discussed and prepared, for which the publicists called this event "a divorce with a human face." On January 1, 1993, two new states appeared on the world map - the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.
The changes that have taken place in the Eastern European countries have had significant foreign policy consequences. In the early 1990s, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact Organization ceased to exist. In 1991, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia. The economic and military-political organizations of Western European countries, primarily the European Union and NATO, have become the center of attraction for the countries of the region. In 1999 Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic joined NATO, and in 2004 - another 7 states (Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia). In the same 2004, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic became EU members, and in 2007 Romania and Bulgaria.
At the beginning of the XXI century. in most countries of Central and Eastern Europe (as the region was called), left and right governments and state leaders were replaced in power. For example, in the Czech Republic, the center-left government was supposed to cooperate with the right-wing president V. Klaus (elected in 2003); in Poland, the left-wing politician A. Kwasniewski was replaced as the country's president by a representative of the right-wing forces L. Kaczynski (2005-2010). It is noteworthy that both the "left" and "right" governments in one way or another solved the general tasks of accelerating the economic development of countries, bringing their political and economic systems in line with European standards, and resolving social problems.
References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General history. XX - early XXI century.
