use of auxiliary materials. Likewise, it is possible to evaluate the "thread" whether energy is used efficiently.

Mapping method(or situational plans) is widely used for collecting, visual analysis and presentation of audit results. Most often, a whole set of thematic maps is developed, reflecting, for example, the location of sources of air pollution, soil, surface and groundwater, unauthorized waste disposal (including their accumulation at the industrial site), irrational use of resources (water, energy, raw materials, materials). Such maps "schemes, illustrated" by photographs, act as audit evidence. In addition, maps "of the scheme clearly reflect improvements, achieved as a result of the implementation of the recommendations of the environmental audit.

The need for instrumental analyzeswhen conducting an environmental audit, it occurs quite rarely, mainly during an audit of the condition of an industrial site and an audit of potential liability. At the same time, the simplest methods and portable equipment can be used by auditors to assess the magnitude of a problem or provide documentary evidence when assessing a baseline situation.

IN the audit conclusion is very important to prepare a summary report for management

and discuss intermediate results. A brief report is presented during a concluding meeting with the management of the audited organization. This stage helps to avoid mistakes, clarify mutual positions, and define accents regarding the details of the results and recommendations in the final report.

The criterion for the success of the audit as a whole is always the applicability of the developed recommendations and the results that the enterprise achieves by introducing organizational and technical solutions, the possibility of which was identified as a result of environmental audit. environmental management tools used to identify and implement opportunities to reduce the negative impact on the environment.

7.2 Life cycle assessment

For the first time, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approaches were proposed by the international organization SETAC - the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. As a result of work to prevent pollution of the environment with persistent toxic compounds that can accumulate in living organisms and lead to long-term negative effects, scientists have come to the conclusion that it is necessary to have a tool for tracking resource transformation processes that lead to the formation of harmful substances and their sweat. , release to products and dispersal in the environment.

LCA methods were developed significantly in the 1980s, when companies, in the interests of marketing policy, wanted to present their products to consumers as completely “environmentally friendly” (“environmentally

friendly ”), that is, products whose production, consumption and disposal do not cause significant damage to the environment. The first experiments in assessing the impact of products on the environment throughout the life cycle gave rise to certain doubts about the applicability of such approaches, and it became clear that no criterion by itself could be used for such an assessment. It was necessary to combine these criteria into one complex theory - the concept of the life cycle, which makes it possible to make the life path of the investigated product “transparent” and to facilitate the possibility of access to each link in the life chain, the possibility of their management and change, and, as a result, to minimize the impact on the surrounding environment.

The method began to be frequently applied not only by commercial, but also by state enterprises, national standardization bodies began work on the formalization of the applied approaches, and soon the need to unify the LCA approaches matured. In 1997, ISO Technical Committee 207 completed work on a standard describing general approaches and principles of LCA - ISO 14040: 1997. Further work of a large number of experts within the framework of subcommittee 5 of ISO / TC 207 made it possible to unify approaches to assessing the life cycle of products, to give an official status to the work performed, to draw parallels for comparing the environmental performance of alternative There are already 7 ISO 14000 standards dedicated to LCA.

Life Cycle Assessment

Gathering information and assessing inputs and outputs, as well as possible environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of a product system.

In terms of ISO 14000 standards, the life cycle is understood as the sequential and interrelated stages of a production system from the receipt of raw materials or natural resources to final placement in the environment. In the LCA literature, the figurative term “from cradle to grave” is used to describe the life cycle idea. That is, when assessing the life cycle, not only the stages of production are considered, but also, for example, the stages of extraction of natural resources, the manufacture of semi-finished products, auxiliary production, as well as its transportation to the consumer, use, and disposal of waste.

The life cycle assessment procedure necessarily includes (see Fig. 17)

setting the research goal and defining the boundaries of the system;

carrying out an inventory analysis of the life cycle (collecting information and quantifying the input and output flows of substances and energy);

the actual assessment of the life cycle, that is, the identification and assessment of the magnitude and significance of existing and potentially possible impacts;

interpretation of results, analysis of alternatives, development of conclusions and recommendations, analysis of their quality (critical analysis).

Life Cycle Assessment Framework

Defining the goals and boundaries of the system

		Interpretation
	Inventory

impact

Scope of direct application:

Development and improvement of production;

Strategic planning;

Formation of public opinion;

Marketing;

Other.

Figure 17. General framework for life cycle assessment (ISO 14040: 1997).

The boundaries of the production system (geographical, physical) in each case are determined by the purpose of the study. For example, to assess the impact of products produced in the territory of a national park on its protected natural complexes, it is advisable to start the study with the transportation of raw materials to the place of their processing and local production of part of the required energy and complete at the stage of transportation of products to the consumer, if it is used outside the park. For a complete assessment in the given example, it would be good to take into account the impact on the territory under consideration as a result of the production of purchased electricity, which in this case is not possible, since electricity comes from the national grid, which has many sources of different characteristics and location. ...

Performing an inventory analysis - describing all types of product interactions with the environment - is a very laborious and critical part of the LCA (see Fig. 18). Completeness of the description of all types of waste, used raw materials and energy involved in the full life cycle of the product (from the extraction of raw materials prior to final disposal or within selected system boundaries), the adequacy of the data obtained at this stage determines the quality of the assessment results as a whole.

It is difficult to quantify environmental impacts and perform detailed comparative analysis. From a technical point of view, you can use various software products developed by

Natural resources

Energy, materials

Energy, materials

Emissions to air, discharges to water bodies, solid waste, etc.

Energy, materials

Emissions to air, discharges to water bodies, solid waste, etc.

Energy, materials

Emissions to air, discharges to water bodies, solid waste, etc.

Energy, materials

Emissions to air, discharges to water bodies, solid waste, etc.

Extraction of raw materials

Production

original

components

Production

Using

products

Recycling

products

Figure 18. The structure of the life cycle description.

it is specifically for LCA (for example, the SimaPro program allows for inventory analysis and life cycle impact assessment and contains various recognized databases for assessing the impact of various factors).

Based on the results of the assessment, conclusions are drawn about the degree of product impact on the environment, its acceptability. The production of almost any product involves the use of a certain variety of raw materials, energy resources, and technological solutions. An analysis of alternatives is carried out, a search for ways of possible reduction of adverse impacts on the environment is carried out and, based on the results obtained, recommendations are prepared. At this stage, a critical review is required to "ensure the quality of the LCA being conducted. The critical review provides" a check that

the methods used to conduct the LCA comply with the requirements of the applicable standards;

the methods used to conduct LCA are scientifically and technically justified;

the data used are adequate and consistent with the purpose of the study;

the interpretation reflects the limitations of the applied approaches and methods and the purpose of the study;

the study report is transparent and fulfills its purpose. The LCA recommendations, in turn, are used by managers and the market. "

logs to clarify the company's strategy, improve the production process, develop and improve products. Sometimes the result of an LCA may be the conclusion that it is advisable to abandon the production of a given type of product and replace it with another, often - revising the functions or composition of the product , change of suppliers.

Let's formulate the practical applicability of LCA. First of all, it is a decision support method that helps an organization:

achieve a better understanding of the environmental impacts, risks and potential responsibilities associated with a particular product or service;

increase the efficiency of relationships with suppliers and consumers;

improve the return on environmental investments;

identify key areas for product improvement and production process;

develop indicators that clearly reflect the possible impacts of products and services on the environment throughout the entire life cycle;

turn an array of data on the product system into information that can be used to assess the company's achievements, analyze the achieved indicators from the standpoint of environmental performance and taking into account the requirements of sustainable development, improve relationships with consumers.

What distinguishes LCA from other methods is the possibility of a global, conceptual, strategic view of the company's products under existing conditions.

Large companies implement LCA projects, the results of which often "become environmental statements about the superiority of a particular type of product in comparison with competing products performing similar" functions. multinational corporations view LCA as a tool to influence decision-making by multiple suppliers and consumers.

With the involvement of consulting firms, IBM collects and analyzes data on the consumption and use of resources by IBM suppliers. LCA is viewed as a methodological basis for making decisions regarding the preference of certain types of raw materials, materials and excipients. The result of the program was a gradual replacement of paints containing " organic solvents, water-based paints, in all supplier manufacturing processes.

Small and medium-sized enterprises use LCA approaches rather than large-scale procedures, focusing on improving environmental performance, justifying the choice of raw materials or auxiliary materials, packaging, etc., using already known information. As examples in this area, they often cite the transition to the use of economical light sources, the refusal to involve organochlorine solvents in the production cycle, and the use of components that require return to the manufacturer after use for recycling.

The use of LCA for the purpose of product labeling has not yet found widespread use, primarily due to the "high labor intensity of the process. Usually, in practice, only individual LCA approaches are used, and the boundaries of the system under consideration are rather narrow." These approaches include the common labeling of food products as “organic” or “ecological”, that is, those whose manufacturing process and materials used meet the requirements of a certain standard (for example). For more information on eco-labeling, see section 7.4.

However, any tools have limitations, and it should be clearly understood that LCA approaches can only be applied with an understanding of these limitations, since they can influence the results of the assessment and the decisions made on

its basis.

1. The choice and the assumptions made in LCA (choice of system boundaries, data sources, impact categories, etc.) determine the subjective nature of the study, and, as you know, people tend to err.

2. The use of models for inventory analysis and impact assessment is limited by the assumptions they make.

3. Implementation of LCA is quite laborious and involves operating with a large array of data describing the processes being analyzed. Volume

the data used increases the likelihood of errors in their collection, analysis, and interpretation.

4. The results of LCA studies focusing on global and regional issues may not be applicable at the local level, as local characteristics may not be adequately represented at the regional or global scale.

5. The accuracy of an LCA is limited by the availability and adequacy of the data used, as well as their quality (averaging, omissions, different types of data, measurement errors, non-dimensionalities, local specifics).

6. Lack of spatial and temporal considerations in the inventory description used to assess impacts leads to uncertainties in the assessment results. Uncertainty varies with the spatial and temporal characteristics of each impact category.

7. To compare the results of different LCA studies, remember

the compatibility of the methods used for the assessment and it is imperative to take into account local and regional conditions that can significantly influence the results of the assessment.

Partially, these restrictions are removed when conducting a critical analysis (analysis of the quality of assessment), but for making serious decisions, it is necessary to use additional methods of decision support.

From the point of view of the peculiarities characteristic of the Russian conditions, it should be noted the problem of the availability of comprehensive and reliable data for compiling an inventory description. The experience of specialists shows that it is quite difficult, and in some cases even impossible, to isolate and bring to a single format information, characterizing the costs of energy, substances, materials, water, etc. for each type of product, as well as the corresponding losses, emissions, discharges, waste. The cheapness of many resources, including water and energy, as well as gaps in the organization of production have led to the fact that in the past they were in many cases insufficiently recorded, and the habit of keeping records of resources and corresponding records was formed not so long ago. Even in cases where data were collected regularly over several years, the degree of averaging is high, and it is not possible to determine the share of resources spent on the production of a particular type of product, let alone to clarify the contribution to environmental pollution.

Domestic enterprises in general are far from organizing work on LCA, but they are already successfully using its approaches in the practice of decision support.

At the enterprise of the electrical industry, the goal was set to gradually replace the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) insulation with a material free from chlorine compounds (polyethylene) and using non-hazardous additives as flame retardants. The decision was the result of interaction with interested parties (regional environmental authorities and public organizations). The beginning of the research was the assumption of the release of dioxins during the heat treatment of PVC at the enterprise. The performed assessment showed that the probability of the formation of harmful substances (including dioxin-like substances) in production is very

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an examination (list or inventory) of the resources used in the manufacture, use and disposal of products, and an assessment of their impact on the environment. LCA can be applied to technology as well. The first step is to define the scope of the study. At this stage, boundaries are established through which material resources and energy enter this cycle, and products and waste released into the air and water, as well as solid waste, leave this cycle. Research can cover the extraction of raw materials, production, transportation and use of products until discarded or recycled. Such an examination is quite specific and based on facts, and should be carried out in accordance with the standards ISO.

The second stage is an environmental impact assessment. The criteria used in the assessment are objective, but it is difficult to assess this impact, since the values \u200b\u200bof the exposure thresholds for a number of reasons in different places can be different. We have already mentioned an example of reservoirs where wastewater is discharged, which can be very different - from a shallow river to an estuary.

Standards ISOon LCA were developed in the framework of international cooperation coordinated by the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC)and the EU Commission (CES). The following standards have been issued:

750 14040: 1997 - LCA. Principles and Foundations;

ISO14041: 1998 - LCA. Objectives, scope of definition and analysis of the condition;

ISO14042: 2000 - LCA. Life Cycle Impact Assessment;

ISO14043: 2000 - LCA. Life cycle concept;

ISO / TS14048: 2000 - LCA. Data storage format;

ISO / TR14049: 2000 - LCA. Application examples ISO14041 to the objectives, scope of the definition and analysis of the state.

Life cycle assessment is useful for identifying and quantifying points in the life cycle where significant environmental impacts occur, and for assessing the impact of life cycle changes (for example, when one technology is replaced by another). An example of an LCA is given in a joint work of firms Tetra Pak, StoraEnsoand the Swedish Federation of Forestry with an analysis of paperboard minimization and changes in printing technology, polymer extrusion coating, distribution, retrieval and recycling systems, all of which reduced the environmental impact in the life cycle of 1 liter milk cartons.

Conclusion

The current state of the art of paper and board problems is not driven by environmental considerations. Recycling began to be used at least 100 years ago for technical and commercial reasons. In 2002, waste paper provided about 45% of the world demand for fibrous semi-finished products. The amount of recycled fiber collected and recycled is increasing for several reasons:

Increased demand for fiber with increasing production of paper and board; increased collection of waste paper due to increased public awareness and implementation of waste management programs.

The benefits of each of the three main sources of fiber can be indicated:

1. Cellulose is a flexible fiber that allows for stronger products; after bleaching of chemically pure cellulose, its smell and taste become neutral, which allows it to be successfully used for packaging food products that are sensitive to taste and smell; processing aids are recovered and reused; the energy used in production is renewable, as it comes from the non-cellulosic components of wood.
2. Wood pulp is a rigid fiber that imparts bulk to paper and board, that is, giving an increase in thickness for a given mass per unit area (g / m 2); this allows the production of stiffer products compared to products based on other fibers; high yield from wood is provided; they can be chemically treated for bleaching and are sufficiently neutral in odor and taste to pack many foods that are sensitive to taste and odor.
3. Recycled fiber has the required functional properties and is cost effective. Its quality depends on the original paper or cardboard. The use of recycled fibers in the manufacture of paper and paperboard is socially appreciated and economical, but its environmental benefits have not been proven. The main environmental benefit is considered to be “forest conservation” through recycling and waste disposal.

Another advantage is that recycled fibers retain the original solar energy stored in it, and this energy is consumed in the production and use of virgin fiber. At the same time, energy is consumed when collecting waste and delivering waste paper to processing plants; in addition, proportionally more energy is required to make secondary products. In the production of paper and board with recycled fiber, additional wastage occurs, and since equivalent recycled products have a higher fiber mass, proportionally more water must be evaporated during the production process. Since all this energy comes from fossil fuels, emissions to the atmosphere are proportionally higher as well.

These facts are presented not out of a desire for controversy, but solely to contrast them with the notion that using recycled fiber is somehow better for the environment. Logistically, primary fibers are also needed for recycling. In a short time, it is difficult to replace primary fiber with secondary, and economic constraints and the needs of society for waste disposal will lead to an increase in the recovery and use of waste paper. This is important because the renewability of resources depends on both environmental impacts and economic and social needs.

It is possible to point to the specific advantages of different types of fibers and their combinations in obtaining different types of paper and board, intended for different uses. Not all fibers are completely interchangeable, and therefore it is inappropriate to insist on the mandatory indication of the minimum level or content of recycled fiber.

Primary fiber is required to meet the performance requirements in many industrial paper and board applications. It is also necessary to maintain the quality of the recovered fibers and the total amount required by the industry in general. Primary fiber is also needed to replace (replenish) recycled fibers that are lost during recycling. Fibers cannot be regenerated indefinitely; in addition, processing reduces the length of the fibers and ultimately they remain in the sludge. Therefore, it can be argued that in practice, both primary and secondary fibers are needed.

Resource renewability has been shown to be dependent on social, economic and environmental factors. Many point out that environmental controversies over specific issues such as the ratio of primary and secondary fibers in products have already developed into a debate characterized by a more systematic approach to environmental issues, namely:

• extraction of raw materials;
• energy use for paper and paperboard making;
• making packaging from them;
• compliance with standards for emissions into the atmosphere, wastewater and solid waste at all stages;
• meeting the needs of products in packaging at all stages of the life cycle - packaging, distribution, transportation, sale and use by the end user;
• disposal of packaging at the end of its life cycle with the possibility of re-using it, recycling it, incinerating it with energy recovery or sending it to landfill.

The system as a whole must be environmentally, economically and socially sustainable, and must include processes that ensure its continual improvement. The above confirms that this is the approach that is currently used in the manufacture and use of packaging based on paper and cardboard.

Wood stocks for the pulp and paper industry are renewable. Independent forest certifications are carried out in many regions, including North America and Europe. More than 50% of the energy used in the pulp and paper industry comes from renewable sources. Enterprises that do not use biomass in the production process and plants that are supplied with electricity, from the point of view of society, are in the same position in terms of resources used.

Currently, energy is obtained mainly from fossil fuels, but the share of renewable resources is constantly growing. Enterprises have improved energy efficiency through cogeneration (CHP), and have also reduced air emissions by switching from coal and oil to natural gas. Water consumption has also decreased, and the quality of wastewater has improved. The amount of recycled paper and paperboard as well as the share of recycled fibers used in the production of paper and paperboard have increased.

Through its activities in all these areas and thanks to an independent examination for compliance with international environmental protection standards (ISO14000, EMAS)and quality management (ISO9000) paper and paperboard packaging firms continue to demonstrate their commitment to sustainability and continuous improvement.

Finally, an important characteristic of the pulp and paper industry on which its sustainability claims are based is the role it plays in the worldwide carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the basis for the relationship between the atmosphere, sea and land (Figure 2.5). All life on Earth depends on carbon in one form or another. Paper and cardboard are also included in this cycle because:

• atmospheric CO 2 is absorbed by the forest and converted into cellulose fibers in the wood;
• trees in their totality form forests;
• forests have a significant impact on climate, biodiversity, etc., by storing solar energy and CO2;
• the main raw material for paper and cardboard is wood;
• non-cellulosic wood components provide more than 50% of the energy used for the production of paper and cardboard, which leads to the fact that CO2 is returned to the atmosphere;
• the portion of paper and paperboard that has been in use for a long time (eg books) and timber acts as a “carbon sink” by removing CO 2 from the atmosphere;
• when paper and cardboard are burned after use with energy recovery and when biodegradable in landfills, they release CO 2 into the atmosphere.

The paper industry is investing in forestry. This leads to the accumulation of new wood, and its volume significantly exceeds the volume of cut. In addition, the amount of CO 2 used for new wood production exceeds the amount generated when using biofuels in the production of paper and cardboard, as well as at the end of their life cycle during combustion with energy recovery or biodegradation.

Figure: 2.5. Carbolic (carbon) cycle of paper and cardboard

Thus, the pulp and paper industry effectively contributes to the development of forestry and removes CO 2 from the atmosphere, which serves to achieve the desired goal - to ensure sustainable development of society.

For the first time, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approaches were proposed by the international organization SETAC - the Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. As a result of work on the prevention of environmental pollution with persistent toxic compounds that can accumulate in living organisms and lead to long-term negative effects, scientists have come to the conclusion that a tool is needed to track the processes of transformation of resources, leading to the formation of harmful substances, their losses, entry into products and dispersal. in the environment.

LCA methods received significant development in the 80s, when companies, in the interests of marketing policy, wanted to present their products to consumers as completely "environmentally friendly", that is, products whose production, consumption and utilization do not apply significant damage to the environment. The first experiments in assessing the impact of products on the environment throughout the life cycle have raised some doubts about the applicability of such approaches. It became obvious that no criterion by itself can be used for such an assessment. It was necessary to combine these criteria into one comprehensive theory - the concept of the life cycle, which makes it possible to make the life path of the investigated product "transparent" and facilitate the possibility of access to each link in the life chain, the possibility of their management and change, and, as a result, minimize the impact on the environment ...

The method began to be frequently applied not only by commercial, software and state enterprises, national standards bodies began work on the design of the applied approaches, and soon there was a need to unify the LCA approaches. In 1997, ISO Technical Committee 207 completed work on a standard describing the general approaches and principles of LCA - ISO 14040: 1997. Further work of a large number of experts within the framework of ISO / TC 207 subcommittee 5 made it possible to unify approaches to assessing the product life cycle, to give an official status to the work performed, to draw parallels to compare the environmental performance of alternative types of products. To date, 7 ISO 14000 series standards have been devoted to LCA.

In the terms of ISO 14000 standards, the life cycle is understood as the successive and interrelated stages of a production system from the receipt of raw materials or natural resources to final disposal in the environment. In the LCA literature, the figurative term “from cradle to grave” is used to describe the life cycle idea. That is, when assessing the life cycle, not only the stages of production are considered, but also, for example, the stages of extraction of natural resources, the manufacture of semi-finished products, auxiliary production, as well as its transportation to the consumer, use, disposal of waste.

The life cycle assessment procedure necessarily includes:

setting the research goal and defining the boundaries of the system;

performing an inventory analysis of the life cycle (collecting information and quantifying the input and output flows of substances and energy);

the actual assessment of the life cycle, that is, the identification and assessment of the magnitude and significance of existing and potentially possible impacts;

interpretation of results, analysis of alternatives, development of conclusions and recommendations, analysis of their quality (critical analysis).

The life cycle assessment procedure is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. General framework for life cycle assessment (ISO 14090: 1997)

The boundaries of the production system (geographic, physical) in each case are determined by the purpose of the study. For example, in order to assess the impact of products produced in the territory of a national park on its protected natural complexes, it is advisable to start the study with the transportation of raw materials to the place of their processing and local production of part of the required energy and to complete it at the stage of transportation of the product to the consumer if it is used outside the park. For the sake of completeness, in the given example, it would be good to take into account the impact on the territory under consideration as a result of the production of purchased electricity, which in this case is not possible, since the electricity comes from the national grid, which has many sources of different characteristics and location.

Performing an inventory analysis - describing all types of product interactions with the environment - is a very laborious and responsible part of an LCA. The completeness of the description of all types of waste, raw materials and energy used, involved in the full life cycle of the product (from the extraction of raw materials to the final disposal or within the selected boundaries of the system), the adequacy of the data obtained at this stage, determine the quality of the assessment results as a whole. The structure of the inventory analysis is shown in Figure 2.

It is difficult to quantify environmental impacts and perform detailed comparative analysis. From a technical point of view, various software products designed specifically for LCA can be used (for example, SimaPro allows for inventory analysis and life cycle impact assessment and contains various recognized databases for assessing the impact of various factors).

Based on the results of the assessment, conclusions are drawn about the degree of product impact on the environment and its acceptability. The production of almost any product involves the use of a certain variety of raw materials, energy resources, and technological solutions. An analysis of alternatives is carried out, a search for ways of possible reduction of adverse environmental impacts is carried out, and recommendations are prepared based on the results obtained. At this stage, critical analysis is needed to ensure the quality of the LCA being conducted. Critical review provides - verification that

the methods used to conduct the LCA comply with the requirements of the applicable standards;

the methods used to conduct LCA are scientifically and technically sound;

the data used are adequate and consistent with the purpose of the study;

the interpretation reflects the limitations of the applied approaches and methods and the purpose of the study;

* The study report is transparent and fulfills its purpose.

LCA recommendations, in turn, are used by managers and marketers to refine the company's strategy, improve the manufacturing process, and develop and improve products. Sometimes the result of an LCA can be a conclusion about the advisability of abandoning the production of this type of product and replacing it with another, often revising the functions or composition of products, changing suppliers.

Figure 3 Structure of the life cycle description

Let's formulate the practical applicability of LCA. First of all, it is a decision support method that helps an organization:

achieve a more complete understanding of the environmental impacts, risks and potential responsibilities associated with a particular product or service;

improve the efficiency of relationships with suppliers and consumers;

improve the return on environmental investments;

identify key areas for product improvement and production lines;

develop indicators that clearly reflect the potential impacts of products and services on the environment throughout the entire life cycle;

turn an array of data on the product system into information that can be used to assess the company's achievements, analyze the achieved indicators from the standpoint of environmental performance and taking into account the requirements of sustainable development, improve relationships with consumers.

What distinguishes LCA from other methods is the possibility of a global, conceptual, strategic view of the company's products under existing conditions.

Large companies have LCA projects that often result in environmental claims that a particular product is superior to competing products that perform similar functions. At the same time, the research materials, the approaches and methods used are transparent, that is, they are presented openly, in a form that is understandable to stakeholders. Multinational corporations view LCA as a tool to influence decision-making by multiple suppliers and consumers.

Through consulting firms, IBM collects and analyzes data on the consumption and use of resources by IBM suppliers. LCA is considered as a methodological basis for decision-making in terms of preference for certain types of raw materials, materials and auxiliary substances. The result of the program was the gradual replacement of organic solvent-based paints with water-based paints in all supplier manufacturing processes.

Small and medium-sized enterprises use LCA approaches rather than large-scale procedures, focusing on improving environmental performance, justifying the choice of raw materials or auxiliary materials, packaging, etc., using already known information. As examples in this area, they often cite - the transition to the use of economical light sources, the refusal to involve organochlorine solvents in the production cycle, the use of components that involve returning to the manufacturer after use for organizing recycling.

The use of LCA for the purposes of product labeling has not yet found widespread use, primarily due to the high labor intensity of the process. Usually, in practice, only individual LCA approaches are used, and the boundaries of the system under consideration are rather narrow. Such approaches include the common labeling of food products as "organic" or "ecological", that is, those whose production process and the materials used for this meet the requirements of a certain standard.

However, any tools have limitations, and it should be clearly understood that LCA approaches can only be applied with an understanding of these limitations, since they can influence the results of the assessment and the decisions made on its basis.

• 1. The choice and the assumptions made in LCA (choice of system boundaries, data sources, impact categories, etc.) determine the subjective nature of the study, and it is known to be human to err.
• 2. The use of models for inventory analysis and impact assessment is limited by the assumptions they make.
• 3. Implementation of LCA is rather laborious and involves operating with a large array of data describing the analyzed processes. The volume of data used increases the likelihood of errors in their collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• 4. Results of LCA studies focused on global and regional issues may not be applicable at the local level, since local characteristics may be inadequately represented on a regional or global scale.
• 5. The accuracy of an LCA is limited by the availability and adequacy of the data used, as well as their quality (averaging, omissions, different types of data, measurement errors, non-dimensionalities, local specifics).
• 6. Shortcomings in the consideration of spatial and temporal characteristics in the inventory description used to assess impacts lead to uncertainties in the assessment results. Uncertainty varies with the spatial and temporal characteristics of each impact category.
• 7. To compare the results of different LCA studies, it is important to keep in mind the compatibility of the methods used for the assessment and be sure to take into account local and regional conditions that can significantly affect the assessment results.

In part, these restrictions are removed when conducting a critical analysis (analysis of the quality of the assessment), but for making serious decisions it is necessary to use additional methods of decision support.

From the point of view of the features characteristic of the Russian conditions, it should be noted the problem of the availability of comprehensive and reliable data for compiling an inventory description. The experience of specialists shows that it is quite difficult, and in some cases even impossible, to isolate and bring to a single format information characterizing the consumption of energy, substances, materials, water, etc. for each type of product, as well as the corresponding losses, emissions, discharges, waste. The cheapness of many resources, including water and energy, as well as gaps in the organization of production have led to the fact that in the past they were in many cases insufficiently recorded, and the habit of keeping records of resources and corresponding records was formed not so long ago. Even in cases where data were collected regularly over several years, the degree of averaging is high, and it is not possible to determine the share of resources spent on the production of a particular type of product, and even more to clarify the contribution to environmental pollution.

Domestic enterprises in general are far from organizing work on LCA, but they are already successfully using its approaches in the practice of decision support.

At the enterprise of the electrical industry, the goal was set to gradually replace polyvinyl chloride (PVC) insulation with a material free from chlorine compounds (polyethylene) and using non-hazardous additives as flame retardants. The decision was the result of interaction with stakeholders (regional environmental authorities and public organizations). The research began with the assumption of the release of dioxins during the heat treatment of PVC at the enterprise. The performed assessment showed that the likelihood of the formation of harmful substances (including dioxin-like ones) in production is very small, but it is high for combustion processes (such as frequent fires at landfills and unauthorized dumps where waste wires and cables are disposed).

Thus, the decision of the company's management to switch to new types of products was aimed at preventing environmental pollution by toxic substances in the process of manufacturing products and handling waste. In addition, the conflict was resolved with government agencies, which initially insisted on an analytical survey of probable emission sources * and installation of treatment equipment.

It should also not be forgotten that large Western companies bring their approaches to industrial sites located in the Russian Federation, and more and more often put forward demands on Russian suppliers. For example, virtually all automotive suppliers working with international corporations have switched to paints with a high solids content (and, accordingly, a lower proportion of organic solvents).

UDC: 658 BBK: 30.6

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

MODERN APPROACHES TO ASSESSMENT OF THE LIFE CYCLE

PRODUCTS

Omelchenko I.N., Brom L.E.

SYSTEM OF AN ASSESSMENT OF LIFE CYCLE OF PRODUCTION

Key words: sustainable development, life cycle assessment, environmental impact, information module, inventory analysis, product chain.

Keywords: sustainable development, assessment of life cycle, ecological influence, information module, inventory analysis, productional chain.

Abstract: The article discusses a method for assessing the life cycle of products that implements the concept of sustainable development of production, describes the basics of designing information modules based on LCA (assessment of the life cycle of products, including an assessment of processing processes taking into account emissions into the external environment), and gives a diagram of the production chain for an industrial enterprise.

Abstract: in article the method of an assessment of life cycle ofproduction, realizing the concept of a sustainable development of production is considered. Bases of design of information modules on the basis of LCA are described. The scheme of a productional chain for the industrial enterprise is shown.

In connection with the constant deterioration of the ecological state of the planet and the depletion of natural resources, scientists began to think about assessing the impact of products at all stages of their life cycle on the environment. The concept of sustainable development combines three aspects: economic, environmental and social and represents a model of development in which the satisfaction of the vital needs of the current generation of people is achieved without reducing such opportunities for future generations.

The concept of sustainable development is a continuation of the CALS concept, however, as a criterion, it uses not only the minimization of the life cycle cost (LCC) of products (the LCC method and tools, Life Cycle Cost), but the minimization of all resources used throughout the entire life cycle with an assessment

the impact of the processes of their processing on the environment (Figure 1).

For the design of information modules for assessing the impact of production processes and products on the environment, the LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) method is used, which has now begun to be actively introduced by Western enterprises. The precondition for the creation of this method was the fact that the output of the production system is not only products, but also harmful effects on the environment (see Figure 2). The LCA (Product Life Cycle Assessment Method for Impacts) is a systematic approach to assessing the environmental impact of product manufacturing throughout its life cycle from the extraction and processing of raw materials and materials to the disposal of individual components.

Energy - Water

Pollution Toxins

Figure 1 - Differences between the concepts of CALS and sustainable development

CALS concept: Consumption of cost resources during the life cycle of products - »min

The concept of sustainable development: Consumption of resources * throughout the entire life cycle of products - »min Resources * \u003d cost, raw materials, electricity, water, solid waste, air emissions

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

Raw materials and supplies

Water resources

Purchase of raw materials

Production

Use / Reuse / Service _maintenance_

Waste management

Products

Air emissions

Water pollution

Solid waste

Products suitable for further use

Other environmental impacts

Figure 2 - Functional model of the production system in the LCA method

To implement the LCA methodology, the international standard ISO 140432000 “Environmental Management. Life Cycle Assessment. Life Cycle Interpretation ".

Information systems designed in accordance with the LCA allow the assessment of the cumulative impact on the environment throughout all stages

Table 1 - Main information and logistics systems

in the life cycle of products, which is usually not considered in traditional analyzes (for example, when extracting raw materials, transporting materials, final disposal of products, etc.). Thus, the list of the main information and logistics systems is currently being supplemented by the LCA modules (Table 1).

Logistic technology Basic information and logistics systems

RP (Requirements / resource planning) - Planning requirements / resources MRP (Materials requirements planning) - Planning requirements for materials

MRP II (Manufacturing resource planning)

DRP (Distribution Requirements Planning) -Planning distribution requirements

DRP (Distribution Resource Planning) -Resource planning in distribution

OPT (Optimized Production Technology) - Optimized Production Technology

ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) - Enterprise Resource Planning

CSPR (Customer Synchronized Resource Planning) - A resource planning system synchronized with consumers.

SCM -Supply Chain Management) -Supply Chain Management ERP / CSRP (SCM Module)

CALS (Continuous Acquisition and Life Cycle Support) -Continuous information assessment of the life cycle of products ERP / CRM / SCM-systems

PDM / PLM, CAD / CAM / CAE systems

Sustainable Development -Life Cycle Assessment - LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) - Life Cycle Assessment - ERP (Environmental Impact Assessment Module)

The production chain is subject to analysis and assessment of inputs-outputs and environmental impacts - from the production of engineering products to the operation of manufactured products and disposal of production and consumption waste in the environment. The whole complex of complex relationships between production and the environment can be represented in the form of a production chain (Figure 3). With this approach, from the point of view of environmental impact management, the life cycle of products is a set of sequential and interrelated stages of the production chain, and the presence of information systems of the ERP class becomes a necessary condition for the successful application of LCA.

The LCA is based on a methodology for assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts of a product, process / service on the environment through:

Drawing up a list of input (energy and material costs) and output (emissions into the environment) elements at each stage of the life cycle;

Estimates of potential environmental impacts associated with the identified inputs and outputs

Interpreting results to help managers make the right and informed decisions.

A complete LCA product lifecycle assessment analysis (Figure 4) involves four separate but interrelated processes:

1. Goal Definition and Scoping - definition and description of a product, manufacturing process or service. Creation of conditions for the assessment, determination of the analysis boundaries and environmental impacts.

2. Inventory analysis (Life

Cycle Inventory) - determination of the quantitative characteristics of input parameters (energy, water, raw materials) and output (emissions to the environment (for example, emissions into the atmosphere, disposal of solid waste, wastewater discharges)) for each stage of the life cycle of the research object under consideration.

3. Assessment of impacts on the environment (Life Cycle Impact Assessment) - assessment of the potential of human and environmental consequences of the used energy, water, raw materials and materials, as well as emissions into the environment, identified in the inventory analysis.

4. Evaluation of results (Interpretation) - the interpretation of the results of the analysis of the state of stocks and assessment of environmental impacts, in order to select the most preferred product, process or service.

Inventory analysis of the life cycle (LCI) is carried out to make decisions within the organization of production and includes procedures for collecting and calculating data in order to quantify the input and output data flows of the production system. Input and output flows can include resource use, emissions to air, discharges to water and land associated with the system. The inventory analysis process is iterative. This analysis allows businesses to:

Select a criterion to determine the resource requirements necessary for the functioning of the system

Highlight certain components of the system that are aimed at rational use of resources

Compare alternative options for materials, products, manufacturing processes

Product Life Cycle Assessment

Defining the purpose and scope for the analysis

Inventory analysis

Environmental Impact Assessment \\

Assessment of results

Figure 4 - Main phases of LCA

An important step in inventory analysis is the creation of a Process - Resource Flow chart, which will serve as a detailed plan for the data to be collected. Each step in the system must be reflected in a diagram, including steps for the production of ancillary products such as chemicals and packaging. Serial in-

inventory analysis of each stage of the product life cycle clearly depicts the relative contribution of each subsystem to the entire production system of the final product. This is based on linking inventory data on environmental impacts to certain categories of impact (Table 1).

Greenhouse effect Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide

Photooxidant emissions Methane, formaldehyde, benzene, volatile organic compounds emissions

Acidification of the environment Emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide

Consumption of natural resources Consumption of oil, natural gas, coal, sulfuric acid, iron, sand, water, timber, land resources, etc.

Toxic effects on humans Emissions of dust, carbon monoxide, arsenic, lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel, sulfur dioxide, benzene, dioxins

Waste generation Generation of household and industrial waste of different hazard classes, slags, sludge from treatment facilities

The contribution of a link in the production system to a particular impact category V is calculated by summing the masses of emissions m taking into account the corresponding eco-indicator I (for each impact category its own environmental indicator; these indicators are determined for a specific region for a certain period of time based on the base emission standards) using the formula:

The results of the LCA method can be used to make decisions both at the level of individual enterprises (for example, when modeling production, product distribution routes), and at the state level (for example, when deciding to restrict or ban the use of certain types of raw materials).

Omelchenko I.N., Brom A.E.

For the implementation of the LCA method in Russia, it is necessary, first of all, to develop the possibilities and methods for the exchange of environmentally relevant information. An important condition for the successful application of LCA on

enterprises should be the organization of information support for the assessment of life cycle and support from the environmental services.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC LIST

1.GOST R ISO 14043-2001

2. Environmental support of projects: textbook. allowance / Yu.V. Chizhikov. - M .: Publishing house of MSTU im. N.E. Bauman, 2010 .-- 308 p.

Bulletin of the Volga University named after V.N. Tatishcheva No. 2 (21)

Ministry of General and Vocational Education

Russian Federation

Saint Petersburg State Engineering and Economic University

abstract

Assessment of the life cycle of the product "brick"

Performed:

3rd year student

group No. 4/871

Rakova Victoria Konstantinovna

1) Introduction (p. 3-4)

2) Life Cycle Assessment (p. 5-6)

Clay (p. 6)

Chamber dryers (p. 7-8)

· Tunnel dryers (page 8)

Drying process (p. 8-9)

Firing process (p. 9-10)

Processing of raw materials for brick making (pp. 10-11)

· Preparation (p. 11)

Shaping (pp. 11-12)

Drying (page 12)

Firing (p. 12-13)

· Packaging (page 13)

· Shipping (p. 14)

3) Disposal (p. 15-16)

4) Conclusion (pp. 17-19)

Introduction

Once on the market, a product lives its own special commodity life, which is called the life cycle of a product in marketing. Different products have different life cycles. It can last from several days to tens of years.

Product life cycle - the period of time from the development of a product to its withdrawal from production and sale. In marketing and logistics, it is customary to consider the trace, the stages of the cycle: 1) origin (development, design, experiments, creation of an experimental batch, as well as production facilities); 2) growth - the initial stage (the appearance of the product on the market, the formation of demand, the final adjustment of the structure, taking into account the operation of the experimental series of the product); 3) maturity - the stage of serial production or mass production; most widespread sale; 4) market saturation; 5) attenuation of the sale and production of the product. From a commercial point of view, at the initial stages, costs prevail (research costs, capital investments, etc.), then incomes prevail, and finally, the growth of losses forces production to stop.

The product lifecycle concept describes the sales of a product, profits, competitors, and marketing strategy from the moment a product enters the market until it leaves the market. It was first published by Theodore Levitt in 1965. The concept proceeds from the fact that any product will sooner or later be squeezed out of the market by another, more perfect or cheaper product. There is no eternal product!

The purpose of this work is to assess the life cycle of a brick.

This topic is relevant at the present time, since the life cycle of a product is of great importance. First, it directs managers to analyze the activities of the enterprise from the point of view of both present and future positions. Second, the product life cycle aims at carrying out systematic planning and new product development. Thirdly, this topic helps to form a set of tasks and justify marketing strategies and measures at each stage of the life cycle, as well as determine the level of competitiveness of your product in comparison with the product of a competitive firm. The study of the life cycle of a product is a mandatory task of an enterprise in order to effectively operate and promote the product to the market.

Life Cycle Assessment

Traditionally, bricks are made from clay, which is literally under our feet. Rains, snow, wind and solar heat - all this gradually destroys stones, turns them into small particles, from which clay is formed. Most often it can be found at the bottom of rivers and lakes.

When wet, the clay becomes soft and viscous. It is easy to give it the desired shape. But as soon as the clay dries, it hardens.

If you heat clay at a high temperature (for example, at 450 ° C), its chemical composition will change, and it is no longer possible to make it plastic again. Therefore, the molded clay bars are fired in ovens at a temperature of 870 to 1200 °. It turns out a red brick.

Since ancient times, the method of making bricks has changed little. True, most of the work is now done by machines: they dig out the clay, grind it and sift it. Then it is mixed with water and the resulting well-mixed mass is pushed through special nozzles with rectangular holes.

This is how bricks are formed. Soft pieces are dried in special rooms. Dry brick is loaded into trolleys, on which it is sent to the kiln for firing.

A good solid brick must withstand pressures of up to 350 kilograms per square centimeter. You can safely build the tallest house from such a brick.

The organization of brick production should create conditions for two main production parameters: to ensure a constant or average composition of clay and to ensure uniform production work. To identify the true reasons for the large number of defects in production, an analysis is made of the compliance of the production organization with these requirements.

Brick production belongs to those types of human activity, where results are achieved only after lengthy experiments with drying and firing modes. This work should be carried out with constant basic production parameters. It is impossible to draw the right conclusions and correct the work if this simple rule is not followed.

It is impossible to produce quality products with variable clay composition and performance. It is impossible to find the reasons for the rejection by reducing the processing, not being able to control and regulate the dryer mode, not observing the firing mode in the kiln. How do you know where the source of the scrap is: clay, mining, processing, molding, drying or firing?

The best clay is one of constant composition, which only bucket and bucket shovels and bucket wheel excavators can provide at low cost. Brick production requires a constant composition of clay over a long period of time for the experimental selection of drying and firing modes. There is no easier and better way to get excellent quality products.

Clay

Good ceramic bricks are made from mined clay with a constant mineral composition. With a constant composition of minerals, the color of the brick during production is the same, which characterizes the facing brick. Deposits with a homogeneous composition of minerals and a multi-meter layer of clay suitable for mining with a single bucket excavator are very rare and almost all of them are developed.

Most of the deposits contain multilayer clay, therefore, the best mechanisms capable of making clay of medium composition during mining are multi-bucket and bucket wheel excavators. When working, they cut the clay along the face height, grind it, and when mixed, an average composition is obtained. Other types of excavators do not mix clay but extract it in blocks.

A constant or medium composition of clay is necessary for the selection of constant modes of drying and firing. You cannot get high-quality bricks if the composition of the clay is constantly changing, since each composition needs its own drying and firing mode. When mining clay of average composition, once selected modes allow you to get high-quality brick from the dryer and furnace for years.

The qualitative and quantitative composition of the deposit is determined as a result of the exploration of the deposit. Only exploration finds out the mineral composition, that is, which silty loams, fusible clays, refractory clays, etc., are contained in the deposit. The best clays for brick making are those that do not require additives.

For the production of bricks, clay is always used that is not suitable for other ceramic products. Before a decision is made to build a plant on the basis of the deposit, industrial tests are carried out for the suitability of clay for brick production. The tests are carried out according to a special standard procedure, which consists in the selection of technology for processing.

The tests answer several questions: is there a layer of homogeneous clay in the deposit, suitable for industrial development; if not, is the average clay composition suitable for brick making; if not, what additives are required to obtain high-quality bricks, what equipment is needed for mining and equipment for processing, etc.

Chamber dryers

Chamber dryers are fully loaded with bricks and the temperature and humidity gradually change in the entire volume of the dryer, in accordance with the set drying curve of products. Dryers are used for products of electric ceramics, porcelain, earthenware and for small production volumes. It is very difficult to adjust the drying mode.

Tunnel dryers

Tunnel dryers are loaded gradually and evenly. The trolleys with bricks move through the dryer and pass successively zones with different temperatures and humidity. Tunnel dryers work well only with medium-sized raw materials. They are used in the production of the same type of building ceramics. Very well "keep" the drying mode with a constant and uniform loading of raw bricks.

Drying process

Clay, from the point of view of drying, is a mixture of minerals, consisting by weight of more than 50% of particles up to 0.01 mm. Fine clays include particles less than 0.2 microns, average 0.2-0.5 microns and coarse-grained 0.5-2 microns. The bulk of the raw brick contains many capillaries of complex configuration and different sizes, formed by clay particles during molding.

Clays give a mass with water, which, after drying, retains its shape, and after firing it acquires the properties of a stone. Plasticity is explained by the penetration of water between the planes of the crystal lattice of clay minerals. The properties of clay with water are important in the molding and drying of bricks, and the chemical composition determines the properties of products during firing and after firing.

The sensitivity of clay to drying depends on the percentage of "clay" and "sandy" particles. The more "clay" particles in the clay, the more difficult it is to remove water from the raw brick without cracking during drying and the greater the strength of the brick after firing. The suitability of clay for brick making is determined by laboratory tests.

If a lot of water vapor is formed in the raw material at the beginning of the dryer, then their pressure can exceed the ultimate strength of the raw material and a crack will appear. Therefore, the temperature in the first zone of the dryer must be such that the water vapor pressure does not destroy the raw material. In the third zone of the dryer, the raw material strength is sufficient to increase the temperature and increase the drying speed.

Mode characteristics of drying products in factories depend on the properties of raw materials and product configuration. Drying regimes existing at factories cannot be regarded as unchanged and optimal. The practice of many factories shows that the duration of drying can be significantly reduced by using methods of accelerating external and internal diffusion of moisture in products.

In addition, one cannot ignore the properties of clay raw materials of a particular deposit. This is precisely the task of the plant technologists. It is necessary to select the productivity of the brick molding line and the operating modes of the brick dryer, which ensure the high quality of the raw material at the maximum achievable productivity of the brick factory.

Process roasting

From the point of view of firing, clay is a mixture of low-melting and refractory minerals. During firing, low-melting minerals bind and partially dissolve refractory minerals. The structure and strength of a brick after firing is determined by the percentage of fusible and refractory minerals, the temperature and duration of firing.

In the process of firing ceramic bricks, low-melting minerals form a vitreous, and refractory crystalline phases. With an increase in temperature, more and more refractory minerals pass into the melt and the content of the glass phase increases. With an increase in the content of the glass phase, frost resistance increases and the strength of ceramic bricks decreases.

With an increase in the duration of firing, the process of diffusion between the glassy and crystalline phases increases. In places of diffusion, large mechanical stresses arise, since the coefficient of thermal expansion of refractory minerals is greater than the coefficient of thermal expansion of low-melting minerals, which leads to a sharp decrease in strength.

After firing at a temperature of 950-1050 ° C, the proportion of the vitreous phase in the ceramic brick should be no more than 8-10%. In the firing process, such firing temperature regimes and firing duration are selected so that all these complex physicochemical processes provide the maximum strength of the ceramic brick.

Processing of raw materials for brick production

At the first stage, experienced geologists analyze the quality of raw materials. The mined clay is then placed in special warehouses, where it is kept open for approximately one year in order to achieve an optimal consistency. After that, the clay is collected again and sent to the nearest plant using a conveyor belt or trucks for further processing. Many companies spend a lot of time and money on rebuilding former clay mines. The territories where clay was previously mined are again becoming habitats for plants habitual for the area and habitats for animals. Sometimes such areas are turned into recreation places for local residents or used by agricultural enterprises or forestry.

Preparation

The second stage of brick production begins with the collection of clay from special storage facilities, where it was stored for a year, and transportation to the departments of the feeder. The clay is then crushed (mill) and ground (roller mill). Water and sand are added, and if hollow bricks are being produced, sawdust is also added as an additional material to give the bricks the correct shape. All ingredients are kneaded to obtain the desired consistency. The clay is then sent to a storehouse (warehouse of materials for making bricks using the same conveyor belt, and then it is passed through disc transmission mechanisms. After that, the clay is put into a press machine. Technical progress makes it possible to use even low quality clay that was previously discarded as residues It should also be noted that renewable biogenic materials such as sunflower seed shells or straw, as well as secondary raw materials such as paper are also used in the brick making process, all of which increase the level of compatibility of the product with the environment and reduce its cost. ...

Shaping

This stage in the production of bricks involves shaping the clay to the required shape, in accordance with the size and shape of the bricks that are to be obtained as a result of the entire process. The prepared clay is extruded through a mold using an extruder and then cut to form individual bricks or, as a result of a mechanical process, compressed into molds using an automatic clay press. Soft adobe bricks are collected on special surfaces and sent to drying. Roofing tiles made from clay are also extruded or pressed into special shapes that allow you to obtain roofing tiles of the required shape and size. Some brick and roof tile companies also design and manufacture their own molds for the process. This allows you to create signature products that will have a unique shape, configuration, and also give special optimized product characteristics.

Drying

The drying process removes unnecessary moisture from the adobe bricks and prepares them for firing. Depending on the type of product and production technology, drying can take from 4 to 45 hours. During this process, the moisture content drops from 20% of the total brick weight to less than 2%. After drying, the bricks are automatically folded for firing and placed in the kiln using special loading machines. Modern drying technologies using air flows have significantly reduced the drying time for bricks. They also reduce energy consumption, improve product quality and create new products that differ in shape and quality from traditional bricks.

Burning

Firing bricks in the kiln tunnel at 900 - 1200 ° C is the final part of the production process and lasts from 6 to 36 hours. This allows the bricks to be given the required strength. Pulp and sawdust (materials for forming a mass for the production of bricks), which were added to the adobe bricks during the preparatory process, completely burn out and leave small holes, which improves the thermal insulation properties of the product. Face bricks and roof tiles can also be produced with a ceramic surface (engobed or glazed) that is applied at high temperatures and gives the brick surface an attractive look. After firing, the bricks become permanently fireproof and refractory. Specially designed firing kilns using innovative technologies and modern firing technologies have significantly reduced the time required for firing by two-thirds. This gives undeniable advantages to the entire technological process: the consumption of energy from primary sources has decreased by 50% over the past ten years; emissions were reduced by 90% thanks to equipment for processing residual combustion products; the quality of products and the volume of products have increased.

Packaging

After firing, the bricks are automatically immersed on special surfaces and packed with foil and spacers. This packaging method allows the identification of the bricks and ensures the safe delivery of products to the customer. The use of a thin film made from recycled polyester fiber, as well as the extended life of the surfaces for transporting bricks, significantly reduce the consumption of materials for packaging products.

Delivery

Most of the brick factories are located near railway stations. This circumstance makes it possible to arrange the shipment of finished products both by road and rail. There is even more exotic for our latitudes - water transport - however, for all its cheapness, not all routes can run near river routes. Although, when supplying high quality bricks over long distances, sometimes multi-stage logistics schemes are built, in which water transportation significantly reduces the share of transport costs.

Recycling bricks

Typically, the disposal of the above product is associated with serious organizational and economic difficulties.

To improve the ecological situation, the disposal of waste of any nature of occurrence plays a very important role. Garbage appears constantly both in everyday life of a person and in industrial production. Already many today recognize the need for accurate and thorough waste disposal using methods aimed at working with each specific type of waste separately.

Depending on the type and hazard class of garbage, its disposal may require the use of specialized methods. Thus, some waste is taken to special landfills and buried, while others are burned in chambers at high temperatures. However, there are also more toxic, highly hazardous wastes - they can be treated with specialized cleaning agents. Also, waste disposal implies the possibility of reusing certain types of waste (for example, metal, waste paper, broken bricks, reinforced concrete products, etc.).

Construction waste: bricks, screed, concrete, tiles obtained during the dismantling of construction objects after processing are converted into construction crushed stone of secondary origin according to GOST 25137-82.

The economic efficiency of the reuse of these resources makes it possible to reduce the cost of the finished secondary product by 2-3 times, and in the long term this may even allow to reduce the cost of building one square. meters of the building.

The main stages of processing construction waste are:

· Processing of source material into crushed stone on a crusher;

· Extraction of metal inclusions;

· Fractionation (sorting) of crushed stone on a screen.

The design of the complex provides for the possibility of dismantling and transporting it in separate parts. Installation does not require complex foundations and pits.

Installation diagram. Disposal of construction waste.

Conclusion

Thus, in conclusion, we can say that for each product, the company must develop a strategy for its life cycle. Each product has its own life cycle with its own specific set of problems and opportunities. The creation of strategic planning based on the product life cycle is essential for the stable long-term growth of the company. The ability to create the right base for the goods on time is the same as paving the way for a dense traffic flow so that there are no stops and delays, and, consequently, losses, maybe even bankrupts. The ability to operate with sales promotion tools, combined with reasonable placement of goods on the market, leads to the best of results - the birth of new success.

Many managers focus on the fact that the product is too good not to find demand even with small advertising, or, especially when the product is at the stage of maturity, they prefer to “sit back and reap the fruits of success without thinking at all. that beyond the immediate threshold of success, they will face decline, which will surely come.

To prevent such unfavorable situations, all self-respecting firms put up with the fact that it is necessary to think about the death of even an unborn product. Such organizations have a long-term successful perspective, because they understand that it would not be harmonious to miss at least one stage of the product, not to supplement it with the development, or bringing another to the market. When starting to bring a new product to the market, it is necessary to immediately start forecasting a new product (modification or completely different) with the intention of having a “secure old age” for the first product. It is best to have eight such products, in this case the company will truly gain a reputation, a place in the market and will constantly receive large profits and compliments.

There are cases when managers do not take into account the life cycle of a product, which often leads to ruin. Such firms are often referred to as “fly-by-night”, which fully describes their “success”.

Obviously, housing in the XXI century. should be built from environmentally friendly, affordable materials and today nothing prevents the designer from planning their use, with the exception of inertia of thinking, lack of information and standards, expertise, and in some cases, certificates. When considering the use of a particular material, three groups of parameters related to energy consumption, ecology, and life cycle must be taken into account. Energy consumption refers to the totality of energy consumption for the production, transportation, installation, operation during the life cycle of a material.

At the same time, it is important to know whether the materials are renewable and whether renewable energy sources are used for their production (for example, wood is a renewable material, but fired brick is not), whether there are alternative materials with lower energy consumption and energy intensity. The environmental friendliness of a material is understood as a set of answers to the questions: is the material itself or its emissions harmful to health, does it require coating and how harmful it is, is it harmful to the production, construction and operation of the material, how environmentally friendly and economical are the technologies for the disposal of material and its waste? whether the material is categorized as local. The life cycle includes the service life of the material (assessed by the criterion of equal wear in the structure), its maintainability and interchangeability, the possibility of reuse and / or harmless cheap disposal. Having collected these principles together, Western civilization came to the concept of an energy-passive eco-house.

The era of large-sized, familiar to us bricks began quite recently, a little more than 400 years ago. For many years the production of bricks was outsourced to monasteries. The hardworking and pious brethren produced bricks of amazing quality. The production went primarily to the needs of the monastery compound, the construction of new churches. Some of the bricks were sold to wealthy laymen.

Clay brick is "natural" - it is inert and breathes. Bricks are made of clay and shale, so they do not have any emissions and volatile organic components, unlike synthetic materials that can pollute the air.

Energy costs is the energy consumption required for the development of the deposit, production and transportation of material. Sometimes a brick is called a material with high energy costs, but it is necessary to estimate all the costs in the life cycle of materials in order to give an accurate estimate, and not just look at the manufacturing costs.

For maximum use and stacking, the bricks should be small and light enough for the bricklayer to lift the brick with one hand (leaving the other hand free for the shovel). The bricks are usually laid flat to achieve the optimum brick width, which is measured by the distance between the thumb and the rest of the fingers of one hand. Usually this distance is within 100 mm. In most cases, the length of the brick is twice its width, i.e. about 200 mm, or slightly more. Thus, you can use a method of laying, such as dressing. This structure of the brickwork increases the stability and strength of the structures.