Culture and power in the post-war years. The war caused significant damage to national culture and its material base. Thousands of schools, hundreds of universities and museums were destroyed, hundreds of thousands of books were burned or taken outside Saran. Many talented scientists, writers, and artists did not return from the front. The number of specialists in universities has decreased.
In the difficult conditions of the post-war period, the state sought funds for the development of science, public education, and art. The revival of destroyed centers of culture began immediately after the expulsion of the enemy from the occupied territories and continued in subsequent years.
A characteristic feature of the development of culture in the post-war years was the increased intervention of the party and state apparatus in the cultural life of society. The sphere of ideology was considered as a kind of “ideological front”, where the main blow should be directed against the remnants of bourgeois views and sycophancy before the culture of the bourgeois West, against retreat from Marxism in science, literature and art.
The requirements for the work of the creative intelligentsia were reflected in the resolutions of the Party Central Committee of the second half of the 40s on issues of literature and art. Among the first to appear was the resolution “On the magazines “Zvezda” and “Leningrad”” (1946). The reason for it was the publication in the magazine “Murzilka” of M. M. Zoshchenko’s story “The Adventures of a Monkey”, which was then reprinted by the literary magazine “Zvezda”. A political assessment of the children's story by M. M. Zoshchenko was given at a meeting of the Organizing Bureau of the Party Central Committee, where I. V. Stalin, Secretary of the Central Committee for Ideology A. A. Zhdanov, other ideological workers, and writers were present. Novels, short stories and poems by a number of authors were considered incompatible with the socialist worldview. M. M. Zoshchenko was accused of lack of ideas, vulgarity and apoliticality. The resolution and the publications explaining it contained political accusations and insults against A. A. Akhmatova, M. M. Zoshchenko and other Soviet writers.
A one-sided, unjustifiably harsh assessment of the work of a group of talented playwrights and composers, theater and film workers was contained in the resolutions of the Party Central Committee “On the repertoire of drama theaters”, “On the film “Big Life””, “On the opera “The Great Friendship” by V. Muradeli”, etc. These decisions had a heavy impact on the creative destinies of individual cultural figures and on the subsequent development of literature and art.
At the turn of the 40s and 50s, the Party Central Committee organized discussions on issues of philosophy, political economy and linguistics. Party and state leaders took part in them, along with representatives of science. Thus, A. A. Zhdanov took part in a discussion organized to discuss G. F. Alexandrov’s book on the history of Western European philosophy. He accused the author of the textbook of admiring bourgeois Western philosophy and called on Soviet scientists to “lead the fight against the corrupt and vile bourgeois ideology.”
At the end of the 40s, the struggle for Soviet national culture and against cosmopolitanism unfolded. The pages of newspapers and magazines were filled with articles directed against “bourgeois cosmopolitanism” and its bearers. Representatives of science, literature and art were declared cosmopolitans, in whose work “admiration for everything Western” was seen. This campaign particularly affected historical science.
Many famous Soviet scientists (I. I. Mints, I. M. Razgon, etc.) were accused of distorting the history of Soviet society. The works of these authors were accused of belittling the role of the USSR in the world historical process, belittling the role of the Russian people and the Russian working class in the victory of the October Revolution and the Civil War, in the construction of a socialist society. The fight against cosmopolitanism was accompanied by “work-outs” and administrative measures against famous researchers. It led to the fact that the concepts of historical development that developed in the 30s and 40s remained intact in science for many years. The slightest deviations in the works of scientists from established views, their attempt to take a fresh look at scientific issues, were considered a violation of the principle of partisanship in science.
Administrative interference in the creative activities of cultural representatives, the fight against “bourgeois ideology,” and political assessments of artistic creativity and scientific work caused deep deformations in the development of the spiritual life of society.
The liberalization of socio-political life gave a powerful impetus to the development of literature and art. The ideological influence on the creativity of the artistic intelligentsia was weakened. In 1958, the Central Committee of the CPSU adopted a resolution “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “The Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky”, “From the Heart”. Many cultural figures - victims of political repression - were rehabilitated. Books by A. Vesely began to be published. P. N. Vasilyeva, I. E. Babel, etc.
The revitalization of the spiritual life of society was facilitated by the emergence of new creative unions. The Union of Writers of the RSFSR, the Union of Artists of the RSFSR, and the Union of Cinematograph Workers of the USSR were formed. Previously unpublished literary, artistic and socio-political magazines “Moscow”, “Neva”, “Foreign Literature”, “Youth”, etc. appeared. A new drama theater “Sovremennik” was opened in the capital, the main troupe of which were graduates of the studio school Moscow Art Theater Literary evenings of famous writers and poets were held.
In the late 50s and early 60s, several meetings between party and state leaders and representatives of the artistic intelligentsia took place. N. S. Khrushchev and the Secretary of the Central Committee for Ideology L. F. Ilyichev took part in them. Relations between the head of state and literary and artistic figures were not easy. The work to restore the rule of law and to rehabilitate innocently convicted persons brought I. S. Khrushchev wide popularity. However, his attempts to interfere in the creative laboratory of cultural workers, his incompetence and categorical assessment of their creativity led to his loss of authority. A certain role in this was played by the persecution of the talented writer and poet B. L. Pasternak, organized not without the knowledge of N. S. Khrushchev. In 1958, for the novel “Doctor Zhivago,” which was banned from publication in the USSR and published abroad, B. L. Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. In the same year, he was expelled from the Union of Writers of the USSR and forced to refuse the Nobel Prize.
One of the consequences of the liberalization of foreign policy was the deepening of international ties between cultural figures. Representatives of science and art, university teachers were sent for internships in different countries of the world. The exchange of information between research institutes and their mutual cooperation in solving important problems of science and technology have expanded. In the USSR, exhibitions were organized from the largest art galleries in the world. There were performances by the best foreign theater and musical groups. The first international competition of musicians and performers named after. P.I. Tchaikovsky. One of its laureates was US pianist Van Cliburn. International tourism has developed.
In the early 60s, ideological pressure on cultural life and diktat methods in its management intensified. The censorship authorities have stepped up their work. The democratization of socio-political and cultural life declared by the “collective leadership” of the country turned into its temporary liberalization.
Public education and higher education
By the end of the 1940s, the restoration of destroyed schools and the construction of new ones made it possible to significantly expand the student population. Schools for working youth have been developed. They made it possible for teenagers who were forced to interrupt their studies during the war to complete their school education. To provide the national economy with a qualified workforce, the scale of worker training was increased through factory training schools, vocational and railway schools. Only in 1946-1950. they trained about 3.4 million workers. The war-interrupted transition to universal compulsory seven-year education was resumed. At the end of the 50s, in order to strengthen the ties between the school and industry, a restructuring of public education was carried out. The existing seven-year school was transformed into an eight-year polytechnic school, and the primary four-year school was replaced by a three-year school. The period of study in secondary school increased: it became eleven years old. Industrial work was included in the training process for high school students. For this purpose, training workshops and areas were created at enterprises. However, the restructuring of the school turned out to be untenable and ineffective. It led to overloading of educational programs and a decrease in the overall level of educational preparation of students. In this regard, in 1964 it was decided to return the school to a ten-year period of study.
The growing need for qualified specialists has contributed to the expansion of the scope and quality of their training. New higher education institutions and universities were opened in Vladivostok, Novosibirsk, Irkutsk, Nalchik and other cities. Only in 1950-1955. 50 new universities began operating. In 1959-1965 higher educational institutions have trained and sent over 2.4 million graduates to work in the national economy.
The intensification of ideological work did not pass without leaving its mark on secondary and higher schools. They introduced new social disciplines: “Social studies” for high school students and “Fundamentals of scientific communism” for university students. In these ways it was supposed to improve the communist education of the younger generation. To increase the level of political knowledge of the adult population, the network of political schools and universities of Marxism-Leninism was expanded.
Development of science
Immediately after the end of the Great Patriotic War, work began on the restoration of scientific centers. The Academies of Sciences began to operate again in Ukraine, Lithuania, and Belarus. Academies of Sciences were created in Kazakhstan, Latvia, and Estonia. New research institutes opened, including atomic energy, physical chemistry, precision mechanics and computer technology. Research centers related to defense industries were created. Soviet scientists carried out the synthesis of a controlled nuclear reaction in a nuclear reactor. In 1949, the USSR tested an atomic bomb.
The dictatorship in the spiritual and ideological sphere had a heavy impact on the development of science. Researchers working in quantum mechanics, cybernetics, and genetics faced great difficulties. With the knowledge of the country's leaders, a real defeat of genetic scientists was organized. At the session of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences in August 1948, they were declared false scientists, and their works were outlawed.
Reforms in socio-political life during the Khrushchev “thaw” and changes in cultural policy created more favorable conditions for the development of science. The entry of the Soviet Union into the era of the scientific and technological revolution required the expansion of the network of research institutions and the creation of new industry institutes. In order to develop productive forces. In Siberia and the Far East, the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences was organized. Allocations for scientific purposes increased.
The scientific and technological revolution required the development of branches of scientific knowledge directly related to the creation of new technology, using atomic energy for the needs of the national economy. Much attention was paid to the development of radiophysics, electronics, and theoretical physics. In 1954, the first industrial nuclear power plant began operating in the USSR. In the town of Dubna near Moscow, an International Center was created to conduct research in the field of nuclear physics and the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Famous physicists A.P. Aleksandrov, D.I. Blokhintsev, I.V. Kurchatov took part in the formation of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research.
The design of new, ultra-high-speed aircraft was carried out by aircraft designers A. N. Tupolev, S. V. Ilyushin and others.
Soviet scientists worked successfully in the rocket and space field. Under the leadership of S.P. Korolev, a ballistic missile and manned spacecraft were created. On October 4, 1957, the world's first artificial Earth satellite was launched in the USSR. On April 12, 1961, Yu. A. Gagarin was the first to fly around the globe on the Vostok spacecraft. In subsequent years, several flights of multi-seat spacecraft were carried out. In 1965, the first human spacewalk took place, carried out by cosmonaut A. A. Leonov. The flights of astronauts opened up opportunities for further exploration of outer space.
Researchers have achieved significant results in the fields of cybernetics, electronics and computer technology. For their work in the field of quantum electronics, A. M. Prokhorov and N. G. Basov - together with the American physicist C. Townes - were awarded the Nobel Prize. For major scientific achievements, academicians N. N. Semenov (together with the American researcher S. Hinshelwood), L. D. Landau, P. A. Cherenkov, I. E. Tamm, I. M. Frank became Nobel laureates. The results of the research work of chemists A. N. Nesmeyanov and I. L. Knunyants were widely used in the national economy. Presentations by Soviet scientists at international scientific congresses and conferences have become a practice. It became obvious that the “Iron Curtain” dividing East and West was beginning to collapse.
The 20th Congress of the CPSU created the prerequisites for the formation of new approaches to understanding society. The opportunity to become familiar with documents previously closed to researchers contributed to positive changes in the social sciences. Interesting publications on Russian history have appeared. Their authors tried to revise some dogmatic assessments of the events of the recent past, to eliminate the “blank spots” in science (“Essays on historical science in the USSR”, “History of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union. 1941-1945”, etc.). But, as before, on the path of the development of history (as well as philosophy and economics) there were certain attitudes and requirements that hindered its liberation from dogmas and stereotypes.
In the early 60s, attempts were made to put anti-religious propaganda on a “scientific” basis. Religion was seen as the main opponent of the scientific worldview, as a relic of the past and the result of the activities of “bourgeois propaganda.” In order to strengthen the atheistic education of citizens, the journal “Science and Religion” was published, and Houses of Scientific Atheism were opened. The Institute of Scientific Atheism was created at the Academy of Social Sciences under the CPSU Central Committee. A new discipline was introduced in universities - “Fundamentals of Scientific Atheism.” The circulation of anti-religious literature increased. All these measures, according to the authorities, were supposed to contribute to the education of a scientific-materialistic worldview among Soviet people.
Literature and art
The victory of the Soviet country in the Patriotic War had a decisive influence on the development of artistic creativity in the post-war years. The military theme occupied a large place in literary works. Such significant books about the war were published as “The Tale of a Real Man” by B. N. Polevoy, and the story “In the Trenches of Stalingrad” by V. P. Nekrasov. The topic of the Patriotic War was addressed by writers of the “front-line generation” - G. Ya. Baklanov, V. V. Bykov. The events of the war years were the main theme in the works of many film playwrights and film directors (“The Feat of the Scout” by B.V. Barnet, “The Young Guard” by S.A. Gerasimov, etc.).
At the same time, in the literature and art of the late 40s, works appeared that distorted historical events and glorified the head of state, I.V. Stalin. Their emergence was facilitated by the practice of brutal control over the creativity of the artistic intelligentsia by the party and state authorities. An example of this is the reworking by the writer A. A. Fadeev after criticism of the novel “The Young Guard”. The reason for criticism of the book was the “insufficient” reflection of the leading role of the party in organizing resistance to the enemy in the Donbass during the Patriotic War.
In the literature of the 50s, interest in man and his spiritual values increased. From everyday life with its collisions and complex relationships between people came to the pages of novels the heroes of D. A. Granin (“Seekers”, “I’m Going into a Storm”) and Yu. P. German (“The Cause You Serve”, “My Dear Man” "), etc. The popularity of young poets E. A. Yevtushenko, A. A. Voznesensky, B. Sh. Okudzhava grew. The literature has been replenished with interesting works about the life of the post-war village (essays by V.V. Ovechkin “District Everyday Life” and “Notes of an Agronomist” by G.N. Troepolsky). V. D. Dudintsev’s novel “Not by Bread Alone” received a wide response from the public, where the topic of illegal repressions in the Soviet state was first raised. However, this work received a negative assessment from the country's leaders. During one of his meetings with literary and artistic figures, N. S. Khrushchev sharply criticized the author and his novel. But the topic of repression and Stalin’s camps has not left literature. The most significant work on this previously forbidden topic was A. I. Solzhenitsyn’s story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich.”
Architecture developed in complex ways in the post-war years. Several high-rise buildings were built in Moscow, including Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov (1949-1953, architects L. V. Rudnev, S. E. Chernyshev, P. V. Abrosimov, A. F. Khryakov). Architects participated in the construction and design of the Moscow and Leningrad metro stations (A. V. Shchusev, V. D. Kokorin, etc.). In those years, metro stations were also considered as a means of aesthetic education of people. Hence the use of sculpture and painting for their design. The artistic decoration of many stations did not correspond to their functional purpose and increased the cost of construction work many times over. Architectural “excesses” were present in some residential and administrative buildings, cultural centers and health resorts built according to individual projects. At the end of the 50s, with the transition to standard construction, “excesses” and elements of the palace style disappeared from architecture.
In the early 60s, exposure of the “ideological vacillations” of literary and artistic figures intensified. M. M. Khutsiev’s feature film “Ilyich’s Outpost” received a disapproving assessment from party and state leaders. At the end of 1962, N. S. Khrushchev visited an exhibition of works by young artists in the Moscow Manege. In the work of some avant-garde painters, he saw a violation of the “laws of beauty” or simply “daub.” The head of state considered his personal opinion in matters of art to be unconditional and the only correct one. At a later meeting with cultural figures, he harshly criticized the works of many talented artists, sculptors, and poets.
In general, the years of the “thaw” had a beneficial effect on the development of national culture. The social upsurge of this time contributed to the development of creativity of literary and artistic figures of a new generation. Expanding contacts in the field of science, literature and art with foreign countries enriched the cultural life of the country.
The music of the 60s in the USA and in the Land of the Soviets was significantly different - it was difficult to imagine that this was really the music of the same era. Rock walked across the world with a sweeping and nervous gait. Prohibitions and traditional cultural foundations were violated.
The great and decent Great Britain was shocked by how quickly different rock bands began to appear in it - it became one of the two main unique hot spots in the world in terms of music.
In 1963, Britain offered the world its secret weapon - four guys singing simple (at first glance!) lyrical songs and playing musical instruments. These were The Beatles, and their fifth single “I want to hold your hand” managed the almost impossible - it displaced American performers from the first lines of the American charts! Animals, The Zombies - all of them became the first signs of the “British invasion” into the musical world space.
In America, meanwhile, those destined to become legends of rock music were emerging from their garages. Rock was then called garage rock, mainly because its main leaders were those who only yesterday had borrowed their father’s garage for their first rehearsals. In such a seemingly everyday environment, real hits were born, which later tormented the hearts and souls of young and adult music lovers.
An alternative to garage rock, oddly enough, was the music that came from it. Complex, multifaceted psychedelic rock and avant-garde rock are the trends that have sank into the souls of those who lived at that time and their descendants for many years. Bob Dylan opened the way for all performers of such genres with his The Tambourine Man, and then it went on - The Doors, Jefferson Airplane, Frank Zappa... It was in the direction of psychedelic rock, as well as the avant-garde, that Pink Floyd first showed themselves. This music was closely related to the interest in illicit substances that young people were increasingly showing at that time. The musicians were inspired by psychedelic substances and created music that perfectly continued the line of the drug trance state. However, many of the bands that began to create their legacy at that time, on the wave of psychedelia, are perfectly listenable sober to this day - the reason for this, obviously, is the desire to create truly complex and high-quality songs that are remembered for a long time and do not go away from consciousness.
The Woodstock festival became a haven for hippies - and this culture at that time was becoming more and more popular and demanded attention, thirsting for appropriate music that could become their anthem. It all started with California Dreamin’ from the legendary The mamas and papas, and then it went from there. The Woodstock Music and Arts Fair in 1969 offered a generation in love with freedom, music and self-expression from the best artists of the era - from The Who to Janis Joplin, from Jefferson Airplane to Jimi Hendrix, from the Grateful Dead to Carlos Santana...
As for the sixties in the USSR, it should be noted that then interest in “overseas” groups and performers began to flourish. Slowly, recordings of The Doors, Pink Floyd, The Beatles, and Jimi Hendrix began to leak into the Land of the Soviets. They immediately found a lot of fans - and this was predictable, because the music of the sixties in the vastness of the USSR was very monotonous and did not reach such a flourishing and progress. For the first time, VIA began to appear, among which were the quite iconic “Gems”, “Pesnyary”, “Earthlings”, “Singing Guitars”. Russian rock had not yet begun to develop, but the original song was flourishing - it was in the sixties that Vladimir Vysotsky, Yuri Vizbor and many others brought the truth through music. For the USSR, everything was still ahead...
Spiritual and cultural life in the USSR in the 50s and 60s.
The spiritual and cultural life of society during the Khrushchev “thaw” was of a contradictory nature. On the one hand, the process of renewal and liberalization in politics could not but cause a revival of culture, a weakening of ideological control, and the rise of science and education. On the other hand, the general approach to the cultural sphere was distinguished by the previous desire to place it at the service of official ideology. Nevertheless, especially before the beginning of the 1960s, there was a spiritual revival of the creative intelligentsia. The spiritual center of the sixties was the magazine “New World,” headed by A. T. Tvardovsky. The Sovremennik Theater began operating in Moscow under the direction of O. N. Efremov. Many writers, artists, and scientists were able to visit abroad. Memoirs of Soviet military leaders began to be published: in previous years, none of the statesmen and military leaders even dared to write down their memories. In historical science, there was a departure from the dogmas of the “Short Course in the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)”, and the role of Stalin in the history of the Soviet state was revised. New magazines “Yunost”, “Moscow”, “Our Contemporary”, “Young Guard”, “History of the USSR”, “New and Contemporary History”, “Culture and Life”, almanacs and newspapers began to be published. New creative unions were created. In 1958, the CPSU Central Committee adopted a resolution “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky”, “With all my heart”. A sign of the times was the rehabilitation of some cultural figures convicted under Stalin. Forbidden poems by S. A. Yesenin, D. A. Akhmatova, M. I. Tsvetaeva, stories by M. M. Zoshchenko and others were published. During the “thaw”, F. A. Abramov, V. P. first announced themselves. Astafiev, E. A. Evtushenko, R. I. Rozhdestvensky, A. A. Voznesensky, B. A. Akhmadulina, V. P. Aksenov and others. However, the inconsistency of cultural policy made itself felt. Some works of literature and art were received with hostility by N. S. Khrushchev, his advisers and a number of cultural figures (novels by V. D. Dudintsev “Not by Bread Alone”, B. L. Pasternak “Doctor Zhivago”, film by M. M. Khutsiev “ Zastava Ilyich”, etc.). The talented painters E. Belyutin, B. Zhutovsky, and the sculptor E. Neizvestny undeservedly fell into disgrace. There were significant achievements in the development of science and technology, especially in astronautics (the launch of an artificial satellite; the flight of Yu. A. Gagarin; successes in rocket science). A large international research center was created in Dubna - the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. Much attention was paid to secondary and higher education: tuition fees at universities, technical schools and senior secondary schools were abolished; instead of seven years, universal compulsory eight-year education was introduced. The number of universities and scientific institutions has increased. The reform of the general education school that began in 1958 (eleven-year instead of ten-year) with an emphasis on industrial training and vocational training of students was not scientifically substantiated. In 1964 it was abandoned. In general, the spiritual emancipation of Soviet people during the period under review was not and could not be complete. In the early 1960s. There was a strengthening of ideological dictates in the field of literature and art, and intolerance towards dissent appeared. These years marked the beginning of the dissident movement.
Spiritual and cultural life in the USSR in the 50-60s.
After the end of the war, centers of culture were restored: schools, theaters, museums. Labor training was introduced in schools, and in 1958 compulsory eight-year education was introduced. The system of evening and correspondence education is expanding. The task of transition to secondary education was set. In the first decade after Stalin there were serious changes in spiritual life. The writer Ehrenburg called this period the “thaw.” In 1953, Pomerantsev’s article “on sincerity in literature” was published in the “new world”, where he first raised the question that writing honestly means not thinking about high and low readers. Ovechkina and Abramova appeared in the same magazine. In 65, Sholokhov became the Nobel Prize laureate. Tvardovsky writes the poem “Terkin in the Other World.” In the 50-60s. new names appeared in the literature. However, during these same years, persecution of the creative intelligentsia took place. In 57, Pasternak was expelled from the Writers' Union. In 58 he was forced to refuse the Nobel Prize. Science is making great progress; a number of modern physicists have been awarded the Nobel Prize: Prokhorov and Bossov - for formulating the foundations of quantum electronics; Landau - for his work on superfluidity and superconductivity. In Dubna in 1958, on the initiative of Kurchaty, an international research center was created that was engaged in nuclear research. In 49, the USSR became the owner of a nuclear bomb, and in 53, thanks to the research of Sakharov and other scientists, a hydrogen bomb. Tupolev creates the supersonic aircraft TU 144. Korolev creates practical astronautics. On April 12, 1963, Gagarin flew into space, in 63 - Tereshkova. And in 65, Leonov made the first spacewalk in the world. Priority for scientific developments was given to the interests of the military-industrial complex. New types of heroes appear in cinema, close and understandable to the viewer. The showing of Kalotozov’s film “The Cranes Are Flying” in Cannes was a triumph. World-class phenomena were: “Ivan’s Childhood” by Tarkovsky, “Clear Sky” by Chukhrai, “The Fate of a Man” by Bondarchuk. Vysotsky's work received universal recognition. The spiritual emancipation of the Soviet people covered only a narrow layer of the country's large cultural centers.
As a result of the internal party struggle in 1957, N.S. Khrushchev took the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers. Having become the head of the party and the head of the government, he concentrated all power in his hands. The course of social and political reforms received a guarantee of continuation.
Preparations for the trials of “enemies of the people” (the doctors’ case, the Leningrad case) were stopped. The Gulag has been liquidated. The MGB was renamed the State Security Committee under the USSR Council of Ministers. Rehabilitation of victims of repression has begun, 16 thousand cases have been reviewed. Some heads of security agencies have been put on trial for falsification. Criticism of Stalin's policies began in the press.
At the 20th Congress of the CPSU in February 1956, Khrushchev made a report “On the cult of personality and its consequences.” It contained information about mass repressions of the 30-40s. Their reasons were associated with deviations from the Marxist understanding of the role of the individual in history and with the ambitious character of Stalin.
The spiritual atmosphere of the first half of the 60s. continued to be a generally “thaw” atmosphere. The phenomenon of the “thaw” is multifaceted: it includes hopes for the renewal of socialism generated by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, and the desire for creative freedom, and the thirst to understand the country in which you live, and a romantic passion for Leninism, freed from Stalinist distortions, and attempts to go beyond the usual circle ideas and stereotypes, and the belief that one can and should think, live, write, create honestly, without waiting for instructions, without fear of shouts, without looking back at authorities. It was these principles and hopes that determined the spiritual image of the generation of the sixties.
During the “thaw” years, S.A., who had been banned in previous years, returned to readers. Yesenin, A.A. Akhmatova, M.I. Tsvetaeva, I.E. Babel, B.A. Pilnyak, M.M. Zoshchenko, it became possible to study the works of V.E. Meyerhold and A.Ya. Tairov, listen to previously unheard works by D.D. Shostakovich, S.S. Prokofieva, A.I. Khachaturyan and others. “Russian Forest” by L.M. was published. Leonov, “Not by Bread Alone” V.V. Dudintseva, “Seekers” D.A. Granina, “Brothers and Sisters” by F.A. Abramova, “Terkin in the Other World” by A.T. Tvardovsky, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A.I. Solzhenitsyn. The magazine “New World”, headed by Tvardovsky, became a significant phenomenon in literary and political life. The Sovremennik Theater opened in Moscow, whose productions (Eternally Alive, The Naked King, etc.) aroused delight and controversy among the public. Movie M.K. Kalatozov’s “The Cranes Are Flying” was triumphantly shown at the Cannes Film Festival. There were also poetry evenings at the Polytechnic Museum, which attracted hundreds of admirers of young E.A. Evtushenko, A.A. Voznesensky, R.I. Rozhdestvensky, songs by B.Sh. Okudzhava and V.S. Vysotsky.
In December 1958, the transition from compulsory seven-year to eight-year education was made. Secondary education could be obtained either at school, or in the system of primary vocational education (SPTU), or in evening schools for working youth without leaving work. Admission to a university depended on work experience and recommendations from the enterprise. The system of evening and correspondence higher education was expanded, but it was ineffective. Most university graduates sought to settle in large cities. Therefore, the system of assigning graduates to enterprises with a mandatory period of service has become widespread.
In the 60s, active research in the field of nuclear physics and space exploration continued. In 1957, the nuclear-powered icebreaker Lenin was launched and the first artificial Earth satellite was launched. On April 12, 1961, the first space flight around the Earth took place Yu.A. Gagarin. After a long break, research in the field of genetics and genetic engineering has resumed. However, the government focused primarily on the development of the military-industrial complex (MIC), where the main scientific and financial forces of the country were concentrated. The program for the peaceful development of atomic energy was auxiliary to the program for the development of atomic weapons.
Miniskirts and bright plastic jewelry, tight trousers, the loose hippie look of the 60s and elegant dresses a la Audrey Hepburn - the 1960s are considered legendary in the fashion world. They were bright and dynamic, so is it any wonder that modern fashion every now and then returns to the style of those times. On catwalks and in everyday looks, you can recognize the characteristic cut of a dress or swimsuit.
Who are these women who influenced the style of an entire era? First of all, it is worth mentioning Mary Quant. This is a British fashion designer who offered mini skirts in her collections. Although at first the models she came up with caused outrage, very soon girls all over the world picked up this innovative idea. In addition, she introduced short shorts, bright makeup with an emphasis on the eyes, and short haircuts into fashion.
Mary Quant and her models
Style icons
But it wasn't just fashion designers who influenced fashion in the 1960s. This time is associated with some movie stars and other media personalities. One of the most famous is. Of course, she became an example of elegance back in the 50s. But it was in this decade that she embodied the look of Holly Golightly (the film “Breakfast at Tiffany’s”) - a long black dress that leaves her shoulders bare, gloves, an updo, and diamonds.
Jacqueline Kennedy and Audrey Hepburn
And became a model of elegance. Women admired her fitted suits paired with pillbox hats and sunglasses.
In the 60s, many girls dreamed of looking like Catherine Deneuve. Her excellent sense of style made her the muse of the famous couturier Yves Saint Laurent. Singer Cher used hippie style in her outfits. And the life partner of Beatles member John Lennon, Yoko. She showed off authentic ensembles in white: mini dresses, high boots and wide-brimmed hats.
Yoko, Cher and Catherine Deneuve
A brightly colored coat and high boots are another trend of the 60s.
60s coat
Features of the figure
Fashion in the 60s underwent dramatic changes. Now it is not lush hips and breasts, a narrow waist that are especially valued, but very thin ones. A striking example is the famous model of that time, Twiggy. She became the first model to wear size 40, although the trend continued after her. Her image of an infantile girl in short dresses created a real sensation. Another highlight of hers is her huge, brightly lined eyes.
Twiggy model
Another model, distinguished by the same slenderness, is Veruschka. She is also one of the brightest representatives of the era, who was not afraid to experiment with clothes and makeup.
Also, the 60s are the hippie era. They are characterized by a mixture of styles, deliberate carelessness in clothing, ethnic orientation and handmade jewelry are valued.
Traits of 60s hippies
What did they wear in the 60s?
Surely fashionistas are interested in what clothes were popular in the 60s. After all, modern fashion often offers details from the past, including swimsuits. If you look at photos of those times, it’s easy to come to the conclusion that you just need to change the decor on the dress or trousers a little, sew them from a different fabric, and they will correspond to the 21st century.
Dresses and trousers
The fashion of the 60s was distinguished by femininity and democracy; any thing, even swimsuits, emphasized advantages. It is not surprising that the girls enjoyed wearing dresses.
At that time they were like this:
The 1960s are the time of the sexual revolution. Women feel free and liberated, there are fewer and fewer restrictions - and they begin to wear trousers. First of all, these are flared or cropped models. Fashion allows you to wear tight-fitting styles that draw attention to your figure. Business ladies choose tuxedos and short jackets.
Pants models
Swimwear
Even swimsuits change. They are becoming less covered than in the 50s, women are boldly wearing bikinis. And some designers offer a very revealing option - monokini swimsuits that expose the breasts.
Swimwear
Accessories: handbags, glasses, jewelry
Bags from the 60s era complement the feminine look, often with a rigid shape.
In the 60s, bright, multi-colored plastic jewelry came into fashion.
Stylish glasses from the 60s
Accessories
Hairstyles, makeup
Girls often have their hair cut short. Thanks to actress Mia Farrow, the pixie hairstyle is becoming popular.
Do you want to repeat Twiggy's look? You need a mini dress and false eyelashes.
Another actress, Brigitte Bardot, made a messy, voluminous mop of hair popular. This hairstyle is called “babette”, named after the heroine of the film. It is considered one of the iconic hairstyles that women all over the world have tried to replicate, creating a fatal look.
Hairstyles, haircuts and styling
Makeup is designed to highlight the eyes; false eyelashes are very popular.
Fashionable 60s in our time
Fashion trends of the 1960s are still in demand today. Of course, other fabrics, fittings, and accessories are used. But dress silhouettes, especially loose A-line or feminine full-skirted styles, often appear on the runways. The love for flashy jewelry is returning. Or another option - minimalism: black dress, pearls and. Pantsuits, white blouses and ties are also popular, including for women. Even the swimsuits are period appropriate.
Modern interpretation of the 60s
If a woman wants to try on a new look, then a photo shoot in the style of the 60s will help with this. Characteristic makeup, feminine and hairstyle - the image will give you the opportunity to return to the past.
Images for a photo shoot
Fashion is constantly changing. But she not only offers something new, but also returns to the old. The 1960s style is back in style, so it's worth paying attention to its clothing trends. Add new lines and silhouettes to your outfits, don't be afraid to try on dresses, pants or swimsuits.
