Old ISS. ISS orbit and speed

Manned orbital multi-purpose space research complex

The International Space Station (ISS), created to conduct scientific research in space. Construction began in 1998 and is being carried out in collaboration with the aerospace agencies of Russia, the USA, Japan, Canada, Brazil and the European Union, and is scheduled to be completed by 2013. The weight of the station after its completion will be approximately 400 tons. The ISS orbits the Earth at an altitude of about 340 kilometers, making 16 revolutions per day. The station will approximately operate in orbit until 2016-2020.

10 years after the first space flight by Yuri Gagarin, in April 1971, the world's first space orbital station, Salyut-1, was launched into orbit. Long-term manned stations (LOS) were necessary for scientific research. Their creation was a necessary step in preparing future human flights to other planets. During the Salyut program from 1971 to 1986, the USSR had the opportunity to test the main architectural elements of space stations and subsequently use them in the project of a new long-term orbital station - Mir.

The collapse of the Soviet Union led to a reduction in funding for the space program, so Russia alone could not not only build a new orbital station, but also maintain the operation of the Mir station. At that time, the Americans had virtually no experience in creating DOS. In 1993, US Vice President Al Gore and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin signed the Mir-Shuttle space cooperation agreement. The Americans agreed to finance the construction of the last two modules of the Mir station: Spectrum and Priroda. In addition, from 1994 to 1998, the United States made 11 flights to Mir. The agreement also provided for the creation of a joint project - the International Space Station (ISS). In addition to the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos) and the US National Aerospace Agency (NASA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA, which includes 17 participating countries), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) took part in the project. , as well as the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB). India and China have expressed interest in participating in the ISS project. On January 28, 1998, a final agreement was signed in Washington to begin construction of the ISS.

The ISS has a modular structure: its different segments were created by the efforts of the countries participating in the project and have their own specific function: research, residential, or used as storage facilities. Some of the modules, such as the American Unity series modules, are jumpers or are used for docking with transport ships. When completed, the ISS will consist of 14 main modules with a total volume of 1000 cubic meters; a crew of 6 or 7 people will always be on board the station.

The weight of the ISS after its completion is planned to be more than 400 tons. The station is roughly the size of a football field. In the starry sky it can be observed with the naked eye - sometimes the station is the brightest celestial body after the Sun and Moon.

The ISS orbits the Earth at an altitude of about 340 kilometers, making 16 revolutions per day. Scientific experiments are carried out on board the station in the following areas:

• Research into new medical methods of therapy and diagnostics and life support in zero gravity conditions
• Research in the field of biology, the functioning of living organisms in outer space under the influence of solar radiation
• Experiments to study the earth's atmosphere, cosmic rays, cosmic dust and dark matter
• Study of the properties of matter, including superconductivity.

The first module of the station, Zarya (weighs 19.323 tons), was launched into orbit by a Proton-K launch vehicle on November 20, 1998. This module was used at the early stage of construction of the station as a source of electricity, also to control orientation in space and maintain temperature conditions. Subsequently, these functions were transferred to other modules, and Zarya began to be used as a warehouse.

The Zvezda module is the main residential module of the station; on board there are life support and station control systems. The Russian transport ships Soyuz and Progress dock with it. The module, with a delay of two years, was launched into orbit by the Proton-K launch vehicle on July 12, 2000 and docked on July 26 with Zarya and the previously launched into orbit by the American docking module Unity-1.

The Pirs docking module (weighs 3,480 tons) was launched into orbit in September 2001 and is used for docking the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, as well as for spacewalks. In November 2009, the Poisk module, almost identical to Pirs, docked with the station.

Russia plans to dock a Multifunctional Laboratory Module (MLM) to the station; when launched in 2012, it should become the station's largest laboratory module, weighing more than 20 tons.

The ISS already has laboratory modules from the USA (Destiny), ESA (Columbus) and Japan (Kibo). They and the main hub segments Harmony, Quest and Unnity were launched into orbit by shuttles.

During the first 10 years of operation, the ISS was visited by more than 200 people from 28 expeditions, which is a record for space stations (only 104 people visited Mir). The ISS was the first example of the commercialization of space flight. Roscosmos, together with the Space Adventures company, sent space tourists into orbit for the first time. In addition, as part of a contract for the purchase of Russian weapons by Malaysia, Roscosmos in 2007 organized the flight of the first Malaysian cosmonaut, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor, to the ISS.

Among the most serious incidents on the ISS is the landing disaster of the space shuttle Columbia ("Columbia", "Columbia") on February 1, 2003. Although Columbia did not dock with the ISS while conducting an independent exploration mission, the disaster led to the grounding of shuttle flights and did not resume until July 2005. This delayed the completion of the station and made the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft the only means of delivering cosmonauts and cargo to the station. In addition, smoke occurred in the Russian segment of the station in 2006, and computer failures were recorded in the Russian and American segments in 2001 and twice in 2007. In the fall of 2007, the station crew was busy repairing a solar panel rupture that occurred during its installation.

According to the agreement, each project participant owns its segments on the ISS. Russia owns the Zvezda and Pirs modules, Japan owns the Kibo module, and ESA owns the Columbus module. The solar panels, which upon completion of the station will generate 110 kilowatts per hour, and the remaining modules belong to NASA.

Completion of construction of the ISS is scheduled for 2013. Thanks to new equipment delivered aboard the ISS by the Endeavor shuttle expedition in November 2008, the station's crew will be increased in 2009 from 3 to 6 people. It was initially planned that the ISS station should operate in orbit until 2010; in 2008, a different date was given - 2016 or 2020. According to experts, the ISS, unlike the Mir station, will not be sunk in the ocean; it is intended to be used as a base for assembling interplanetary spacecraft. Despite the fact that NASA spoke in favor of reducing funding for the station, the head of the agency, Michael Griffin, promised to fulfill all US obligations to complete its construction. However, after the war in South Ossetia, many experts, including Griffin, stated that the cooling of relations between Russia and the United States could lead to Roscosmos ceasing cooperation with NASA and the Americans would lose the opportunity to send expeditions to the station. In 2010, US President Barack Obama announced the end of funding for the Constellation program, which was supposed to replace the shuttles. In July 2011, the Atlantis shuttle made its final flight, after which the Americans had to rely indefinitely on their Russian, European and Japanese counterparts to deliver cargo and astronauts to the station. In May 2012, the Dragon spacecraft, owned by the private American company SpaceX, docked with the ISS for the first time.

Webcam on the International Space Station

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Ibuki(Japanese: いぶき Ibuki, Breath) is an Earth remote sensing satellite, the world's first spacecraft whose task is to monitor greenhouse gases. The satellite is also known as The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite, or GOSAT for short. Ibuki is equipped with infrared sensors that determine the density of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere. In total, the satellite has seven different scientific instruments. Ibuki was developed by the Japanese space agency JAXA and launched on January 23, 2009 from the Tanegashima Satellite Launch Center. The launch was carried out using a Japanese H-IIA launch vehicle.

Video broadcast life on the space station includes an interior view of the module when the astronauts are on duty. The video is accompanied by live audio of negotiations between the ISS and MCC. Television is only available when the ISS is in contact with the ground via high-speed communications. If the signal is lost, viewers can see a test picture or a graphical map of the world that shows the station's location in orbit in real time. Because the ISS orbits the Earth every 90 minutes, the sun rises or sets every 45 minutes. When the ISS is in darkness, the external cameras may show blackness, but can also show a breathtaking view of the city lights below.

International Space Station, abbr. The ISS (International Space Station, abbr. ISS) is a manned orbital station used as a multi-purpose space research complex. The ISS is a joint international project in which 15 countries participate: Belgium, Brazil, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. The ISS is controlled by: the Russian segment - from Space Flight Control Center in Korolev, the American segment from the Mission Control Center in Houston. There is a daily exchange of information between the Centers.

Means of communication
The transmission of telemetry and the exchange of scientific data between the station and the Mission Control Center is carried out using radio communication. In addition, radio communications are used during rendezvous and docking operations; they are used for audio and video communication between crew members and with flight control specialists on Earth, as well as relatives and friends of the astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multi-purpose communication systems.
The Russian segment of the ISS communicates directly with Earth using the Lyra radio antenna installed on the Zvezda module. "Lira" makes it possible to use the "Luch" satellite data relay system. This system was used to communicate with the Mir station, but it fell into disrepair in the 1990s and is not currently used. To restore the system's functionality, Luch-5A was launched in 2012. At the beginning of 2013, it is planned to install specialized subscriber equipment on the Russian segment of the station, after which it will become one of the main subscribers of the Luch-5A satellite. The launches of 3 more satellites “Luch-5B”, “Luch-5V” and “Luch-4” are also expected.
Another Russian communications system, Voskhod-M, provides telephone communications between the Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk modules and the American segment, as well as VHF radio communications with ground control centers using external antennas module "Zvezda".
In the American segment, two separate systems located on the Z1 truss are used for communication in the S-band (audio transmission) and Ku-band (audio, video, data transmission). Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to American TDRSS geostationary satellites, which allows for almost continuous contact with mission control in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European Columbus module and the Japanese Kibo module are redirected through these two communication systems, but the American TDRSS data transmission system will eventually be supplemented by the European satellite system (EDRS) and a similar Japanese one. Communication between modules is carried out via an internal digital wireless network.
During spacewalks, astronauts use a UHF VHF transmitter. VHF radio communications are also used during docking or undocking by the Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and Space Shuttle spacecraft (although the shuttles also use S- and Ku-band transmitters via TDRSS). With its help, these spacecraft receive commands from the mission control center or from the ISS crew members. Automatic spacecraft are equipped with their own means of communication. Thus, ATV ships use a specialized Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE) system during rendezvous and docking, the equipment of which is located on the ATV and on the Zvezda module. Communication is carried out through two completely independent S-band radio channels. PCE begins to function, starting from relative ranges of about 30 kilometers, and is turned off after the ATV is docked to the ISS and switches to interaction via the on-board MIL-STD-1553 bus. To accurately determine the relative position of the ATV and the ISS, a laser rangefinder system installed on the ATV is used, making precise docking with the station possible.
The station is equipped with approximately one hundred ThinkPad laptop computers from IBM and Lenovo, models A31 and T61P. These are ordinary serial computers, which, however, have been modified for use in the ISS, in particular, the connectors and cooling system have been redesigned, the 28 Volt voltage used at the station has been taken into account, and the safety requirements for working in zero gravity have been met. Since January 2010, the station has provided direct Internet access for the American segment. Computers on board the ISS are connected via Wi-Fi to a wireless network and are connected to the Earth at a speed of 3 Mbit/s for downloading and 10 Mbit/s for downloading, which is comparable to a home ADSL connection.

Orbit altitude
The altitude of the ISS orbit is constantly changing. Due to the remnants of the atmosphere, a gradual braking and altitude decrease occur. All incoming ships help raise the altitude using their engines. At one time they limited themselves to compensating for the decline. Recently, the altitude of the orbit has been steadily increasing. February 10, 2011 — The flight altitude of the International Space Station was about 353 kilometers above sea level. On June 15, 2011 it increased by 10.2 kilometers and amounted to 374.7 kilometers. On June 29, 2011, the orbital altitude was 384.7 kilometers. In order to reduce the influence of the atmosphere to a minimum, the station had to be raised to 390-400 km, but American shuttles could not rise to such a height. Therefore, the station was maintained at altitudes of 330-350 km by periodic correction by engines. Due to the end of the shuttle flight program, this restriction has been lifted.

Timezone
The ISS uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is almost exactly equidistant from the times of the two control centers in Houston and Korolev. Every 16 sunrises/sunsets, the station's windows are closed to create the illusion of darkness at night. The team typically wakes up at 7 a.m. (UTC), and the crew typically works about 10 hours every weekday and about five hours every Saturday. During shuttle visits, the ISS crew usually follows Mission Elapsed Time (MET) - the total flight time of the shuttle, which is not tied to a specific time zone, but is calculated solely from the time the space shuttle took off. The ISS crew advances their sleep times before the shuttle arrives and returns to their previous sleep schedule after the shuttle departs.

Atmosphere
The station maintains an atmosphere close to that of Earth. Normal atmospheric pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kilopascals, the same as at sea level on Earth. The atmosphere on the ISS does not coincide with the atmosphere maintained in the shuttles, therefore, after the space shuttle docks, the pressures and composition of the gas mixture on both sides of the airlock are equalized. From approximately 1999 to 2004, NASA existed and developed the IHM (Inflatable Habitation Module) project, which planned to use atmospheric pressure at the station to deploy and create the working volume of an additional habitable module. The body of this module was supposed to be made of Kevlar fabric with a sealed inner shell of gas-tight synthetic rubber. However, in 2005, due to the unsolved nature of most of the problems posed in the project (in particular, the problem of protection from space debris particles), the IHM program was closed.

Microgravity
The gravity of the Earth at the height of the station's orbit is 90% of the gravity at sea level. The state of weightlessness is due to the constant free fall of the ISS, which, according to the equivalence principle, is equivalent to the absence of gravity. The station environment is often described as microgravity, due to four effects:

Braking pressure of the residual atmosphere.

Vibrational accelerations due to the operation of mechanisms and the movement of the station crew.

Orbit correction.

The heterogeneity of the Earth's gravitational field leads to the fact that different parts of the ISS are attracted to the Earth with different strengths.

All these factors create accelerations reaching values ​​of 10-3...10-1 g.

Observing the ISS
The size of the station is sufficient for its observation with the naked eye from the surface of the Earth. The ISS is observed as a fairly bright star, moving quite quickly across the sky approximately from west to east (angular velocity of about 1 degree per second.) Depending on the observation point, the maximum value of its magnitude can take a value from? 4 to 0. European Space the agency, together with the website “www.heavens-above.com”, provides the opportunity for everyone to find out the schedule of ISS flights over a certain populated area of ​​the planet. By going to the website page dedicated to the ISS and entering the name of the city of interest in Latin, you can get the exact time and a graphical representation of the station’s flight path over it for the coming days. The flight schedule can also be viewed at www.amsat.org. The ISS flight path can be seen in real time on the website of the Federal Space Agency. You can also use the Heavensat (or Orbitron) program.

The ISS is the successor to the MIR station, the largest and most expensive object in the history of mankind.

What size is the orbital station? How much does it cost? How do astronauts live and work on it?

We will talk about this in this article.

What is the ISS and who owns it?

The International Space Station (MKS) is an orbital station used as a multi-purpose space facility.

This is a scientific project in which 14 countries take part:

• Russian Federation;
• USA;
• France;
• Germany;
• Belgium;
• Japan;
• Canada;
• Sweden;
• Spain;
• Netherlands;
• Switzerland;
• Denmark;
• Norway;
• Italy.

In 1998, the creation of the ISS began. Then the first module of the Russian Proton-K rocket was launched. Subsequently, other participating countries began delivering other modules to the station.

Note: In English, the ISS is written as ISS (deciphering: International Space Station).

There are people who are convinced that the ISS does not exist, and all space flights were filmed on Earth. However, the reality of the manned station was proven, and the theory of deception was completely refuted by scientists.

Structure and dimensions of the international space station

The ISS is a huge laboratory designed to study our planet. At the same time, the station is home to the astronauts working there.

The station is 109 meters long, 73.15 meters wide and 27.4 meters high. The total weight of the ISS is 417,289 kg.

How much does an orbital station cost?

The cost of the facility is estimated at $150 billion. This is by far the most expensive development in human history.

Orbital altitude and flight speed of the ISS

The average altitude at which the station is located is 384.7 km.

The speed is 27,700 km/h. The station completes a full revolution around the Earth in 92 minutes.

Time at the station and crew work schedule

The station operates on London time, the astronauts' working day begins at 6 am. At this time, each crew establishes contact with their country.

Crew reports can be listened to online. The working day ends at 19:00 London time .

Flight path

The station moves around the planet along a certain trajectory. There is a special map that shows which part of the route the ship is passing at a given time. This map also shows different parameters - time, speed, altitude, latitude and longitude.

Why doesn't the ISS fall to Earth? In fact, the object falls to the Earth, but misses because it is constantly moving at a certain speed. The trajectory needs to be raised regularly. As soon as the station loses some of its speed, it approaches closer and closer to the Earth.

What is the temperature outside the ISS?

The temperature is constantly changing and directly depends on the light and shadow conditions. In the shade it stays at about -150 degrees Celsius.

If the station is located under the influence of direct sunlight, then the temperature outside is +150 degrees Celsius.

Temperature inside the station

Despite fluctuations overboard, the average temperature inside the ship is 23 - 27 degrees Celsius and is completely suitable for human habitation.

Astronauts sleep, eat, play sports, work and rest at the end of the working day - conditions are close to the most comfortable for being on the ISS.

What do astronauts breathe on the ISS?

The primary task in creating the spacecraft was to provide the astronauts with the conditions necessary to maintain proper breathing. Oxygen is obtained from water.

A special system called “Air” takes carbon dioxide and throws it overboard. Oxygen is replenished through electrolysis of water. There are also oxygen cylinders at the station.

How long does it take to fly from the cosmodrome to the ISS?

The flight takes just over 2 days. There is also a short 6-hour scheme (but it is not suitable for cargo ships).

The distance from Earth to the ISS ranges from 413 to 429 kilometers.

Life on the ISS - what astronauts do

Each crew conducts scientific experiments commissioned from the research institute of their country.

There are several types of such studies:

• educational;
• technical;
• environmental;
• biotechnology;
• medical and biological;
• study of living and working conditions in orbit;
• exploration of space and planet Earth;
• physical and chemical processes in space;
• exploration of the solar system and others.

Who's on the ISS now?

Currently, the following personnel continue to remain on watch in orbit: Russian cosmonaut Sergei Prokopyev, Serena Auñon-Chancellor from the USA and Alexander Gerst from Germany.

The next launch was planned from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on October 11, but due to the accident, the flight did not take place. At the moment, it is not yet known which astronauts will fly to the ISS and when.

How to contact the ISS

In fact, anyone has a chance to communicate with the international space station. To do this you will need special equipment:

• transceiver;
• antenna (for frequency range 145 MHz);
• rotating device;
• a computer that will calculate the ISS orbit.

Today, every astronaut has high-speed Internet. Most specialists communicate with friends and family via Skype, maintain personal pages on Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook, where they post stunningly beautiful photographs of our green planet.

How many times does the ISS orbit the Earth per day?

The speed of rotation of the ship around our planet is 16 times a day. This means that in one day, astronauts can see the sunrise 16 times and watch the sunset 16 times.

The rotation speed of the ISS is 27,700 km/h. This speed prevents the station from falling to Earth.

Where is the ISS at the moment and how to see it from Earth

Many people are interested in the question: is it really possible to see a ship with the naked eye? Thanks to its constant orbit and large size, anyone can see the ISS.

You can see a ship in the sky both day and night, but it is recommended to do this at night.

In order to find out the flight time over your city, you need to subscribe to NASA's newsletter. You can monitor the movement of the station in real time thanks to the special Twisst service.

Conclusion

If you see a bright object in the sky, it is not always a meteorite, comet or star. Knowing how to distinguish the ISS with the naked eye, you will definitely not be mistaken in the celestial body.

You can find out more about the ISS news and watch the movement of the object on the official website: http://mks-online.ru.

The choice of some orbital parameters for the International Space Station is not always obvious. For example, a station can be located at an altitude of 280 to 460 kilometers, and because of this, it is constantly experiencing the inhibiting influence of the upper layers of the atmosphere of our planet. Every day, the ISS loses approximately 5 cm/s in speed and 100 meters in altitude. Therefore, it is necessary to periodically raise the station, burning the fuel of ATV and Progress trucks. Why can't the station be raised higher to avoid these costs?

The range assumed during the design and the current real position are dictated by several reasons. Every day, astronauts and cosmonauts receive high doses of radiation, and beyond the 500 km mark its level increases sharply. And the limit for a six-month stay is set at only half a sievert; only a sievert is allotted for the entire career. Each sievert increases the risk of cancer by 5.5 percent.

On Earth, we are protected from cosmic rays by the radiation belt of our planet’s magnetosphere and atmosphere, but they work weaker in near space. In some parts of the orbit (the South Atlantic Anomaly is such a spot of increased radiation) and beyond it, strange effects can sometimes appear: flashes appear in closed eyes. These are cosmic particles passing through the eyeballs; other interpretations claim that the particles excite the parts of the brain responsible for vision. This can not only interfere with sleep, but also once again unpleasantly reminds us of the high level of radiation on the ISS.

In addition, Soyuz and Progress, which are now the main crew change and supply ships, are certified to operate at altitudes of up to 460 km. The higher the ISS is, the less cargo can be delivered. The rockets that send new modules for the station will also be able to bring less. On the other hand, the lower the ISS, the more it decelerates, that is, more of the delivered cargo must be fuel for subsequent orbit correction.

Scientific tasks can be carried out at an altitude of 400-460 kilometers. Finally, the position of the station is affected by space debris - failed satellites and their debris, which have enormous speed relative to the ISS, which makes a collision with them fatal.

There are resources on the Internet that allow you to monitor the orbital parameters of the International Space Station. You can obtain relatively accurate current data, or track their dynamics. At the time of writing this text, the ISS was at an altitude of approximately 400 kilometers.

The ISS can be accelerated by elements located at the rear of the station: these are Progress trucks (most often) and ATVs, and, if necessary, the Zvezda service module (extremely rare). In the illustration before the kata, a European ATV is running. The station is raised often and little by little: corrections occur approximately once a month in small portions of about 900 seconds of engine operation; Progress uses smaller engines so as not to greatly influence the course of the experiments.

The engines can be turned on once, thus increasing the flight altitude on the other side of the planet. Such operations are used for small ascents, since the eccentricity of the orbit changes.

A correction with two activations is also possible, in which the second activation smoothes the station’s orbit to a circle.

Some parameters are dictated not only by scientific data, but also by politics. It is possible to give the spacecraft any orientation, but during launch it will be more economical to use the speed provided by the rotation of the Earth. Thus, it is cheaper to launch the vehicle into an orbit with an inclination equal to the latitude, and maneuvers will require additional fuel consumption: more for movement towards the equator, less for movement towards the poles. The ISS's orbital inclination of 51.6 degrees may seem strange: NASA vehicles launched from Cape Canaveral traditionally have an inclination of about 28 degrees.

When the location of the future ISS station was discussed, it was decided that it would be more economical to give preference to the Russian side. Also, such orbital parameters allow you to see more of the Earth's surface.

But Baikonur is at a latitude of approximately 46 degrees, so why is it then common for Russian launches to have an inclination of 51.6°? The fact is that there is a neighbor to the east who will not be too happy if something falls on him. Therefore, the orbit is tilted to 51.6° so that during launch no parts of the spacecraft could under any circumstances fall into China and Mongolia.

International Space Station

International Space Station, abbr. (English) International Space Station, abbr. ISS) - manned, used as a multi-purpose space research complex. The ISS is a joint international project in which 14 countries participate (in alphabetical order): Belgium, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, USA, France, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan. The original participants included Brazil and the UK.

The ISS is controlled by the Russian segment from the Space Flight Control Center in Korolev, and by the American segment from the Lyndon Johnson Mission Control Center in Houston. The control of the laboratory modules - the European Columbus and the Japanese Kibo - is controlled by the Control Centers of the European Space Agency (Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (Tsukuba, Japan). There is a constant exchange of information between the Centers.

History of creation

In 1984, US President Ronald Reagan announced the start of work on the creation of an American orbital station. In 1988, the projected station was named “Freedom”. At the time, it was a joint project between the United States, ESA, Canada and Japan. A large-sized controlled station was planned, the modules of which would be delivered one by one into the Space Shuttle orbit. But by the beginning of the 1990s, it became clear that the cost of developing the project was too high and only international cooperation would make it possible to create such a station. The USSR, which already had experience in creating and launching into orbit the Salyut orbital stations, as well as the Mir station, planned to create the Mir-2 station in the early 1990s, but due to economic difficulties the project was suspended.

On June 17, 1992, Russia and the United States entered into an agreement on cooperation in space exploration. In accordance with it, the Russian Space Agency (RSA) and NASA developed a joint Mir-Shuttle program. This program provided for flights of American reusable space shuttles to the Russian space station Mir, the inclusion of Russian cosmonauts in the crews of American shuttles and American astronauts in the crews of the Soyuz spacecraft and the Mir station.

During the implementation of the Mir-Shuttle program, the idea of ​​unifying national programs for the creation of orbital stations was born.

In March 1993, RSA General Director Yuri Koptev and General Designer of NPO Energia Yuri Semyonov proposed to NASA head Daniel Goldin to create the International Space Station.

In 1993, many politicians in the United States were against the construction of a space orbital station. In June 1993, the US Congress discussed a proposal to abandon the creation of the International Space Station. This proposal was not adopted by a margin of only one vote: 215 votes for refusal, 216 votes for building the station.

On September 2, 1993, US Vice President Al Gore and Chairman of the Russian Council of Ministers Viktor Chernomyrdin announced a new project for a “truly international space station.” From that moment on, the official name of the station became “International Space Station”, although at the same time the unofficial name was also used - the Alpha space station.

ISS, July 1999. At the top is the Unity module, at the bottom, with deployed solar panels - Zarya

On November 1, 1993, RSA and NASA signed a “Detailed Work Plan for the International Space Station.”

On June 23, 1994, Yuri Koptev and Daniel Goldin signed in Washington the “Interim Agreement to Conduct Work Leading to Russian Partnership in a Permanent Civilian Manned Space Station,” under which Russia officially joined work on the ISS.

November 1994 - the first consultations of the Russian and American space agencies took place in Moscow, contracts were concluded with the companies participating in the project - Boeing and RSC Energia. S. P. Koroleva.

March 1995 - at the Space Center. L. Johnson in Houston, the preliminary design of the station was approved.

1996 - station configuration approved. It consists of two segments - Russian (a modernized version of Mir-2) and American (with the participation of Canada, Japan, Italy, member countries of the European Space Agency and Brazil).

November 20, 1998 - Russia launched the first element of the ISS - the Zarya functional cargo block, which was launched by a Proton-K rocket (FGB).

December 7, 1998 - the shuttle Endeavor docked the American module Unity (Node-1) to the Zarya module.

On December 10, 1998, the hatch to the Unity module was opened and Kabana and Krikalev, as representatives of the United States and Russia, entered the station.

July 26, 2000 - the Zvezda service module (SM) was docked to the Zarya functional cargo block.

November 2, 2000 - the manned transport spacecraft (TPS) Soyuz TM-31 delivered the crew of the first main expedition to the ISS.

ISS, July 2000. Docked modules from top to bottom: Unity, Zarya, Zvezda and Progress ship

February 7, 2001 - the crew of the shuttle Atlantis during the STS-98 mission attached the American scientific module Destiny to the Unity module.

April 18, 2005 - NASA head Michael Griffin, at a hearing of the Senate Space and Science Committee, announced the need to temporarily reduce scientific research on the American segment of the station. This was required to free up funds for the accelerated development and construction of a new manned vehicle (CEV). A new manned spacecraft was needed to ensure independent US access to the station, since after the Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, the US temporarily did not have such access to the station until July 2005, when shuttle flights resumed.

After the Columbia disaster, the number of long-term ISS crew members was reduced from three to two. This was due to the fact that the station was supplied with materials necessary for the life of the crew only by Russian Progress cargo ships.

On July 26, 2005, shuttle flights resumed with the successful launch of the Discovery shuttle. Until the end of the shuttle's operation, it was planned to make 17 flights until 2010; during these flights, the equipment and modules necessary both for completing the station and for upgrading some of the equipment, in particular the Canadian manipulator, were delivered to the ISS.

The second shuttle flight after the Columbia disaster (Shuttle Discovery STS-121) took place in July 2006. On this shuttle, German cosmonaut Thomas Reiter arrived at the ISS and joined the crew of the long-term expedition ISS-13. Thus, after a three-year break, three cosmonauts again began working on a long-term expedition to the ISS.

ISS, April 2002

Launched on September 9, 2006, the Atlantis shuttle delivered to the ISS two segments of the ISS truss structures, two solar panels, as well as radiators for the thermal control system of the American segment.

On October 23, 2007, the American module Harmony arrived on board the Discovery shuttle. It was temporarily docked to the Unity module. After redocking on November 14, 2007, the Harmony module was permanently connected to the Destiny module. Construction of the main American segment of the ISS has been completed.

ISS, August 2005

In 2008, the station expanded by two laboratories. On February 11, the Columbus module, commissioned by the European Space Agency, was docked, and on March 14 and June 4, two of the three main compartments of the Kibo laboratory module, developed by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, were docked - the pressurized section of the Experimental Cargo Bay (ELM) PS) and sealed compartment (PM).

In 2008-2009, the operation of new transport vehicles began: the European Space Agency "ATV" (the first launch took place on March 9, 2008, payload - 7.7 tons, 1 flight per year) and the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency "H-II Transport Vehicle "(the first launch took place on September 10, 2009, payload - 6 tons, 1 flight per year).

On May 29, 2009, the long-term ISS-20 crew of six people began work, delivered in two stages: the first three people arrived on Soyuz TMA-14, then they were joined by the Soyuz TMA-15 crew. To a large extent, the increase in crew was due to the increased ability to deliver cargo to the station.

ISS, September 2006

On November 12, 2009, the small research module MIM-2 was docked to the station, shortly before launch it was named “Poisk”. This is the fourth module of the Russian segment of the station, developed on the basis of the Pirs docking hub. The capabilities of the module allow it to carry out some scientific experiments, and also simultaneously serve as a berth for Russian ships.

On May 18, 2010, the Russian small research module Rassvet (MIR-1) was successfully docked to the ISS. The operation to dock Rassvet to the Russian functional cargo block Zarya was carried out by the manipulator of the American space shuttle Atlantis, and then by the ISS manipulator.

ISS, August 2007

In February 2010, the Multilateral Management Council for the International Space Station confirmed that there were no currently known technical restrictions on the continued operation of the ISS beyond 2015, and the US Administration had envisaged continued use of the ISS until at least 2020. NASA and Roscosmos are considering extending this deadline until at least 2024, with a possible extension until 2027. In May 2014, Russian Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin stated: "Russia does not intend to extend the operation of the International Space Station beyond 2020."

In 2011, flights of reusable spacecraft such as the Space Shuttle were completed.

ISS, June 2008

On May 22, 2012, a Falcon 9 rocket carrying a private space cargo ship, Dragon, was launched from the Cape Canaveral Space Center. This is the first-ever test flight of a private spacecraft to the International Space Station.

On May 25, 2012, the Dragon spacecraft became the first commercial spacecraft to dock with the ISS.

On September 18, 2013, the private automatic cargo supply spacecraft Cygnus approached the ISS for the first time and was docked.

ISS, March 2011

Planned Events

The plans include a significant modernization of the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft.

In 2017, it is planned to dock the Russian 25-ton multifunctional laboratory module (MLM) Nauka to the ISS. It will take the place of the Pirs module, which will be undocked and flooded. Among other things, the new Russian module will completely take over the functions of Pirs.

“NEM-1” (scientific and energy module) - the first module, delivery is planned in 2018;

"NEM-2" (scientific and energy module) - the second module.

UM (nodal module) for the Russian segment - with additional docking nodes. Delivery is planned for 2017.

Station structure

The station design is based on a modular principle. The ISS is assembled by sequentially adding another module or block to the complex, which is connected to the one already delivered into orbit.

As of 2013, the ISS includes 14 main modules, Russian ones - “Zarya”, “Zvezda”, “Pirs”, “Poisk”, “Rassvet”; American - "Unity", "Destiny", "Quest", "Tranquility", "Dome", "Leonardo", "Harmony", European - "Columbus" and Japanese - "Kibo".

• "Zarya"- functional cargo module "Zarya", the first of the ISS modules delivered into orbit. Module weight - 20 tons, length - 12.6 m, diameter - 4 m, volume - 80 m³. Equipped with jet engines to correct the station's orbit and large solar panels. The module's service life is expected to be at least 15 years. The American financial contribution to the creation of Zarya is about $250 million, the Russian one - over $150 million;
• P.M. panel- anti-meteorite panel or anti-micrometeor protection, which, at the insistence of the American side, is mounted on the Zvezda module;
• "Star"- the Zvezda service module, which houses flight control systems, life support systems, an energy and information center, as well as cabins for astronauts. Module weight - 24 tons. The module is divided into five compartments and has four docking points. All its systems and units are Russian, with the exception of the on-board computer complex, created with the participation of European and American specialists;
• MIME- small research modules, two Russian cargo modules “Poisk” and “Rassvet”, designed to store equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments. "Poisk" is docked to the anti-aircraft docking port of the Zvezda module, and "Rassvet" is docked to the nadir port of the Zarya module;
• "The science"- Russian multifunctional laboratory module, which provides conditions for storing scientific equipment, conducting scientific experiments, and temporary accommodation for the crew. Also provides the functionality of the European manipulator;
• ERA- European remote manipulator designed to move equipment located outside the station. Will be assigned to the Russian MLM scientific laboratory;
• Pressurized adapter- a sealed docking adapter designed to connect ISS modules to each other and to ensure docking of shuttles;
• "Calm"- ISS module performing life support functions. Contains systems for water recycling, air regeneration, waste disposal, etc. Connected to the Unity module;
• "Unity"- the first of three connecting modules of the ISS, which acts as a docking node and power switch for the modules “Quest”, “Nod-3”, farm Z1 and transport ships docked to it through Pressurized Adapter-3;
• "Pier"- mooring port intended for docking of Russian Progress and Soyuz aircraft; installed on the Zvezda module;
• VSP- external storage platforms: three external non-pressurized platforms intended exclusively for the storage of goods and equipment;
• Farms- a combined truss structure, on the elements of which solar panels, radiator panels and remote manipulators are installed. Also designed for non-hermetic storage of cargo and various equipment;
• "Canadarm2", or "Mobile Service System" - a Canadian system of remote manipulators, serving as the main tool for unloading transport ships and moving external equipment;
• "Dextre"- Canadian system of two remote manipulators, used to move equipment located outside the station;
• "Quest"- a specialized gateway module designed for spacewalks by cosmonauts and astronauts with the possibility of preliminary desaturation (washing out nitrogen from human blood);
• "Harmony"- a connecting module that acts as a docking unit and power switch for three scientific laboratories and transport ships docked to it via Hermoadapter-2. Contains additional life support systems;
• "Columbus"- a European laboratory module, in which, in addition to scientific equipment, network switches (hubs) are installed, providing communication between the station’s computer equipment. Docked to the Harmony module;
• "Destiny"- American laboratory module docked with the Harmony module;
• "Kibo"- Japanese laboratory module, consisting of three compartments and one main remote manipulator. The largest module of the station. Designed for conducting physical, biological, biotechnological and other scientific experiments in sealed and non-sealed conditions. In addition, thanks to its special design, it allows for unplanned experiments. Docked to the Harmony module;

ISS observation dome.

• "Dome"- transparent observation dome. Its seven windows (the largest is 80 cm in diameter) are used for conducting experiments, observing space and docking spacecraft, and also as a control panel for the station's main remote manipulator. Rest area for crew members. Designed and manufactured by the European Space Agency. Installed on the Tranquility node module;
• TSP- four unpressurized platforms fixed on trusses 3 and 4, designed to accommodate the equipment necessary for conducting scientific experiments in a vacuum. Provide processing and transmission of experimental results via high-speed channels to the station.
• Sealed multifunctional module- storage room for cargo storage, docked to the nadir docking port of the Destiny module.

In addition to the components listed above, there are three cargo modules: Leonardo, Raphael and Donatello, which are periodically delivered into orbit to equip the ISS with the necessary scientific equipment and other cargo. Modules with a common name "Multi-purpose supply module", were delivered in the cargo compartment of the shuttles and docked with the Unity module. Since March 2011, the converted Leonardo module has been one of the station's modules called the Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM).

Power supply to the station

ISS in 2001. The solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules are visible, as well as the P6 truss structure with American solar panels.

The only source of electrical energy for the ISS is the light of which the station's solar panels convert into electricity.

The Russian segment of the ISS uses a constant voltage of 28 volts, similar to that used on the Space Shuttle and Soyuz spacecraft. Electricity is generated directly by the solar panels of the Zarya and Zvezda modules, and can also be transmitted from the American segment to the Russian one through an ARCU voltage converter ( American-to-Russian converter unit) and in the opposite direction through the RACU voltage converter ( Russian-to-American converter unit).

It was originally planned that the station would be supplied with electricity using the Russian module of the Scientific Energy Platform (NEP). However, after the Columbia shuttle disaster, the station assembly program and the shuttle flight schedule were revised. Among other things, they also refused to deliver and install NEP, so at the moment most of the electricity is produced by solar panels in the American sector.

In the American segment, solar panels are organized as follows: two flexible folding solar panels form the so-called solar wing ( Solar Array Wing, SAW), a total of four pairs of such wings are located on the station's truss structures. Each wing has a length of 35 m and a width of 11.6 m, and its useful area is 298 m², while the total power generated by it can reach 32.8 kW. Solar panels generate a primary DC voltage of 115 to 173 Volts, which is then, using DDCU units, Direct Current to Direct Current Converter Unit ), is transformed into a secondary stabilized direct voltage of 124 Volts. This stabilized voltage is directly used to power the electrical equipment of the American segment of the station.

Solar battery on the ISS

The station makes one revolution around the Earth in 90 minutes and spends about half of this time in the Earth's shadow, where solar panels do not work. Its power supply then comes from nickel-hydrogen buffer batteries, which are recharged when the ISS returns to sunlight. The battery life is 6.5 years, and it is expected that they will be replaced several times during the life of the station. The first battery change was carried out on the P6 segment during the astronauts' spacewalk during the flight of the shuttle Endeavor STS-127 in July 2009.

Under normal conditions, the US sector's solar arrays track the Sun to maximize energy production. Solar panels are aimed at the Sun using “Alpha” and “Beta” drives. The station is equipped with two Alpha drives, which rotate several sections with solar panels located on them around the longitudinal axis of truss structures: the first drive turns sections from P4 to P6, the second - from S4 to S6. Each wing of the solar battery has its own Beta drive, which ensures rotation of the wing relative to its longitudinal axis.

When the ISS is in the shadow of the Earth, the solar panels are switched to Night Glider mode ( English) (“Night planning mode”), in which case they turn with their edges in the direction of movement to reduce the resistance of the atmosphere that is present at the station’s flight altitude.

Means of communication

The transmission of telemetry and the exchange of scientific data between the station and the Mission Control Center is carried out using radio communication. In addition, radio communications are used during rendezvous and docking operations; they are used for audio and video communication between crew members and with flight control specialists on Earth, as well as relatives and friends of the astronauts. Thus, the ISS is equipped with internal and external multi-purpose communication systems.

The Russian segment of the ISS communicates directly with Earth using the Lyra radio antenna installed on the Zvezda module. "Lira" makes it possible to use the "Luch" satellite data relay system. This system was used to communicate with the Mir station, but it fell into disrepair in the 1990s and is not currently used. To restore the system's functionality, Luch-5A was launched in 2012. In May 2014, 3 Luch multifunctional space relay systems were operating in orbit - Luch-5A, Luch-5B and Luch-5V. In 2014, it is planned to install specialized subscriber equipment on the Russian segment of the station.

Another Russian communication system, Voskhod-M, provides telephone communication between the Zvezda, Zarya, Pirs, Poisk modules and the American segment, as well as VHF radio communication with ground control centers using external antennas module "Zvezda".

In the American segment, for communication in the S-band (audio transmission) and K u-band (audio, video, data transmission), two separate systems are used, located on the Z1 truss structure. Radio signals from these systems are transmitted to American TDRSS geostationary satellites, which allows for almost continuous contact with mission control in Houston. Data from Canadarm2, the European Columbus module and the Japanese Kibo module are redirected through these two communication systems, however, the American TDRSS data transmission system will eventually be supplemented by the European satellite system (EDRS) and a similar Japanese one. Communication between modules is carried out via an internal digital wireless network.

During spacewalks, astronauts use a UHF VHF transmitter. VHF radio communications are also used during docking or undocking by the Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and Space Shuttle spacecraft (although the shuttles also use S- and K u-band transmitters via TDRSS). With its help, these spacecraft receive commands from the Mission Control Center or from the ISS crew members. Automatic spacecraft are equipped with their own means of communication. Thus, ATV ships use a specialized system during rendezvous and docking Proximity Communication Equipment (PCE), the equipment of which is located on the ATV and on the Zvezda module. Communication is carried out through two completely independent S-band radio channels. PCE begins to function, starting from relative ranges of about 30 kilometers, and is turned off after the ATV is docked to the ISS and switches to interaction via the on-board MIL-STD-1553 bus. To accurately determine the relative position of the ATV and the ISS, a laser rangefinder system installed on the ATV is used, making precise docking with the station possible.

The station is equipped with approximately one hundred ThinkPad laptop computers from IBM and Lenovo, models A31 and T61P, running Debian GNU/Linux. These are ordinary serial computers, which, however, have been modified for use in the ISS conditions, in particular, the connectors and cooling system have been redesigned, the 28 Volt voltage used at the station has been taken into account, and the safety requirements for working in zero gravity have been met. Since January 2010, the station has provided direct Internet access for the American segment. Computers on board the ISS are connected via Wi-Fi to a wireless network and are connected to the Earth at a speed of 3 Mbit/s for downloading and 10 Mbit/s for downloading, which is comparable to a home ADSL connection.

Bathroom for astronauts

The toilet on the OS is designed for both men and women; it looks exactly the same as on Earth, but has a number of design features. The toilet is equipped with leg clamps and thigh holders, and powerful air pumps are built into it. The astronaut is fastened with a special spring mount to the toilet seat, then turns on a powerful fan and opens the suction hole, where the air flow carries away all the waste.

On the ISS, air from toilets is necessarily filtered before entering living quarters to remove bacteria and odor.

Greenhouse for astronauts

Fresh greens grown in microgravity are being officially included on the International Space Station menu for the first time. On August 10, 2015, astronauts will try lettuce collected from the orbital Veggie plantation. Many media outlets reported that for the first time, astronauts tried their own homegrown food, but this experiment was carried out at the Mir station.

Scientific research

One of the main goals when creating the ISS was the ability to conduct experiments at the station that require unique space flight conditions: microgravity, vacuum, cosmic radiation not weakened by the earth’s atmosphere. Major areas of research include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, materials science and quantum physics), astronomy, cosmology and meteorology. Research is carried out using scientific equipment, mainly located in specialized scientific modules-laboratories; some of the equipment for experiments requiring vacuum is fixed outside the station, outside its hermetic volume.

ISS scientific modules

Currently (January 2012), the station includes three special scientific modules - the American laboratory Destiny, launched in February 2001, the European research module Columbus, delivered to the station in February 2008, and the Japanese research module Kibo " The European research module is equipped with 10 racks in which instruments for research in various fields of science are installed. Some racks are specialized and equipped for research in the fields of biology, biomedicine and fluid physics. The remaining racks are universal; the equipment in them can change depending on the experiments being carried out.

The Japanese research module Kibo consists of several parts that were sequentially delivered and installed in orbit. The first compartment of the Kibo module is a sealed experimental transport compartment. JEM Experiment Logistics Module - Pressurized Section ) was delivered to the station in March 2008, during the flight of the Endeavor shuttle STS-123. The last part of the Kibo module was attached to the station in July 2009, when the shuttle delivered a leaky experimental transport compartment to the ISS. Experiment Logistics Module, Unpressurized Section ).

Russia has two “Small Research Modules” (SRMs) at the orbital station - “Poisk” and “Rassvet”. It is also planned to deliver the multifunctional laboratory module “Nauka” (MLM) into orbit. Only the latter will have full-fledged scientific capabilities; the amount of scientific equipment located at two MIMs is minimal.

Collaborative experiments

The international nature of the ISS project facilitates joint scientific experiments. Such cooperation is most widely developed by European and Russian scientific institutions under the auspices of ESA and the Russian Federal Space Agency. Well-known examples of such cooperation were the “Plasma Crystal” experiment, dedicated to the physics of dusty plasma, and conducted by the Institute of Extraterrestrial Physics of the Max Planck Society, the Institute of High Temperatures and the Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as a number of other scientific institutions in Russia and Germany, the medical and biological experiment “ Matryoshka-R”, in which mannequins are used to determine the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation - equivalents of biological objects created at the Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Cologne Institute of Space Medicine.

The Russian side is also a contractor for contract experiments of ESA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. For example, Russian cosmonauts tested the ROKVISS robotic experimental system. Robotic Components Verification on ISS- testing of robotic components on the ISS), developed at the Institute of Robotics and Mechanotronics, located in Wessling, near Munich, Germany.

Russian studies

Comparison between burning a candle on Earth (left) and in microgravity on the ISS (right)

In 1995, a competition was announced among Russian scientific and educational institutions, industrial organizations to conduct scientific research on the Russian segment of the ISS. In eleven main areas of research, 406 applications were received from eighty organizations. After RSC Energia specialists assessed the technical feasibility of these applications, in 1999 the “Long-term program of scientific and applied research and experiments planned on the Russian segment of the ISS” was adopted. The program was approved by the President of the Russian Academy of Sciences Yu. S. Osipov and the General Director of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (now FKA) Yu. N. Koptev. The first studies on the Russian segment of the ISS were started by the first manned expedition in 2000. According to the original ISS design, it was planned to launch two large Russian research modules (RM). The electricity needed to conduct scientific experiments was to be provided by the Scientific Energy Platform (NEP). However, due to underfunding and delays in the construction of the ISS, all these plans were canceled in favor of building a single scientific module, which did not require large costs and additional orbital infrastructure. A significant part of the research carried out by Russia on the ISS is contractual or joint with foreign partners.

Currently, various medical, biological, and physical studies are being conducted on the ISS.

Research on the American segment

Epstein-Barr virus shown using fluorescent antibody staining technique

The United States is conducting an extensive research program on the ISS. Many of these experiments are a continuation of research carried out during shuttle flights with the Spacelab modules and in the Mir-Shuttle program jointly with Russia. An example is the study of the pathogenicity of one of the causative agents of herpes, the Epstein-Barr virus. According to statistics, 90% of the adult US population are carriers of the latent form of this virus. During space flight, the immune system weakens; the virus can become active and cause illness in a crew member. Experiments to study the virus began on the flight of the shuttle STS-108.

European studies

Solar observatory installed on the Columbus module

The European Science Module Columbus has 10 integrated payload racks (ISPRs), although some of them, by agreement, will be used in NASA experiments. For the needs of ESA, the following scientific equipment is installed in the racks: the Biolab laboratory for conducting biological experiments, the Fluid Science Laboratory for research in the field of fluid physics, the European Physiology Modules installation for physiological experiments, as well as the universal European Drawer Rack containing equipment for conducting experiments on protein crystallization (PCDF).

During STS-122, external experimental facilities were also installed for the Columbus module: the EuTEF remote technology experiment platform and the SOLAR solar observatory. It is planned to add an external laboratory for testing general relativity and string theory, Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.

Japanese studies

The research program carried out on the Kibo module includes studying the processes of global warming on Earth, the ozone layer and surface desertification, and conducting astronomical research in the X-ray range.

Experiments are planned to create large and identical protein crystals, which are intended to help understand the mechanisms of diseases and develop new treatments. In addition, the effect of microgravity and radiation on plants, animals and people will be studied, and experiments will also be conducted in robotics, communications and energy.

In April 2009, Japanese astronaut Koichi Wakata conducted a series of experiments on the ISS, which were selected from those proposed by ordinary citizens. The astronaut attempted to "swim" in zero gravity using a variety of strokes, including crawl and butterfly. However, none of them allowed the astronaut to even budge. The astronaut noted that “even large sheets of paper cannot correct the situation if you pick them up and use them as flippers.” In addition, the astronaut wanted to juggle a soccer ball, but this attempt was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Japanese managed to send the ball back over his head. Having completed these difficult exercises in zero gravity, the Japanese astronaut tried push-ups and rotations on the spot.

Security questions

Space debris

A hole in the radiator panel of the shuttle Endeavor STS-118, formed as a result of a collision with space debris

Since the ISS moves in a relatively low orbit, there is a certain probability that the station or astronauts going into outer space will collide with so-called space debris. This can include both large objects such as rocket stages or failed satellites, and small ones such as slag from solid rocket engines, coolants from reactor installations of US-A series satellites, and other substances and objects. In addition, natural objects such as micrometeorites pose an additional threat. Considering the cosmic speeds in orbit, even small objects can cause serious damage to the station, and in the event of a possible hit in a cosmonaut’s spacesuit, micrometeorites can pierce the casing and cause depressurization.

To avoid such collisions, remote monitoring of the movement of elements of space debris is carried out from Earth. If such a threat appears at a certain distance from the ISS, the station crew receives a corresponding warning. The astronauts will have enough time to activate the DAM system. Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre), which is a group of propulsion systems from the Russian segment of the station. When the engines are turned on, they can propel the station into a higher orbit and thus avoid a collision. In case of late detection of danger, the crew is evacuated from the ISS on Soyuz spacecraft. Partial evacuation occurred on the ISS: April 6, 2003, March 13, 2009, June 29, 2011, and March 24, 2012.

Radiation

In the absence of the massive atmospheric layer that surrounds people on Earth, astronauts on the ISS are exposed to more intense radiation from constant streams of cosmic rays. Crew members receive a radiation dose of about 1 millisievert per day, which is approximately equivalent to the radiation exposure of a person on Earth in a year. This leads to an increased risk of developing malignant tumors in astronauts, as well as a weakened immune system. The weak immunity of astronauts can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases among crew members, especially in the confined space of the station. Despite efforts to improve radiation protection mechanisms, the level of radiation penetration has not changed much compared to previous studies conducted, for example, at the Mir station.

Station body surface

During an inspection of the outer skin of the ISS, traces of marine plankton were found on scrapings from the surface of the hull and windows. The need to clean the outer surface of the station due to contamination from the operation of spacecraft engines was also confirmed.

Legal side

Legal levels

The legal framework governing the legal aspects of the space station is diverse and consists of four levels:

• First The level establishing the rights and obligations of the parties is the “Intergovernmental Agreement on the Space Station” (eng. Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement - I.G.A. ), signed on January 29, 1998 by fifteen governments of countries participating in the project - Canada, Russia, USA, Japan, and eleven member states of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland and Sweden). Article No. 1 of this document reflects the main principles of the project:
  This agreement is a long-term international framework based on genuine partnership for the comprehensive design, creation, development and long-term use of a manned civil space station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law. When writing this agreement, the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, ratified by 98 countries, which borrowed the traditions of international maritime and air law, was taken as a basis.
• The first level of partnership is the basis second level, which is called “Memorandums of Understanding” (eng. Memoranda of Understanding - MOU s ). These memoranda represent agreements between NASA and the four national space agencies: FSA, ESA, CSA and JAXA. Memoranda are used to describe in more detail the roles and responsibilities of partners. Moreover, since NASA is the designated manager of the ISS, there are no direct agreements between these organizations, only with NASA.
• TO third This level includes barter agreements or agreements on the rights and obligations of the parties - for example, the 2005 commercial agreement between NASA and Roscosmos, the terms of which included one guaranteed place for an American astronaut on the crew of Soyuz spacecraft and a portion of the useful volume for American cargo on unmanned " Progress."
• Fourth the legal level complements the second (“Memorandums”) and puts into effect certain provisions from it. An example of this is the “Code of Conduct on the ISS,” which was developed in pursuance of paragraph 2 of Article 11 of the Memorandum of Understanding - legal aspects of ensuring subordination, discipline, physical and information security, and other rules of conduct for crew members.

Ownership structure

The project's ownership structure does not provide for its members a clearly established percentage for the use of the space station as a whole. According to Article No. 5 (IGA), the jurisdiction of each of the partners extends only to that component of the plant that is registered with it, and violations of legal norms by personnel, inside or outside the plant, are subject to proceedings according to the laws of the country of which they are citizens.

Interior of the Zarya module

Agreements for the use of ISS resources are more complex. The Russian modules “Zvezda”, “Pirs”, “Poisk” and “Rassvet” were manufactured and owned by Russia, which retains the right to use them. The planned Nauka module will also be manufactured in Russia and will be included in the Russian segment of the station. The Zarya module was built and delivered into orbit by the Russian side, but this was done with US funds, so NASA is officially the owner of this module today. To use Russian modules and other components of the station, partner countries use additional bilateral agreements (the above-mentioned third and fourth legal levels).

The rest of the station (US modules, European and Japanese modules, truss structures, solar panels and two robotic arms) is used as agreed by the parties as follows (as a % of total time of use):

1. Columbus - 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA
2. "Kibo" - 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA
3. Destiny - 100% for NASA

In addition to this:

• NASA can use 100% of the truss area;
• Under an agreement with NASA, KSA can use 2.3% of any non-Russian components;
• Crew working time, solar power, use of support services (loading/unloading, communications services) - 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA.

Legal curiosities

Before the flight of the first space tourist, there was no regulatory framework governing private space flights. But after the flight of Dennis Tito, the countries participating in the project developed “Principles” that defined such a concept as a “Space Tourist” and all the necessary issues for his participation in the visiting expedition. In particular, such a flight is possible only if there are specific medical indicators, psychological fitness, language training, and a financial contribution.

The participants of the first space wedding in 2003 found themselves in the same situation, since such a procedure was also not regulated by any laws.

In 2000, the Republican majority in the US Congress adopted a legislative act on the non-proliferation of missile and nuclear technologies in Iran, according to which, in particular, the United States could not purchase equipment and ships from Russia necessary for the construction of the ISS. However, after the Columbia disaster, when the fate of the project depended on the Russian Soyuz and Progress, on October 26, 2005, Congress was forced to adopt amendments to this bill, removing all restrictions on “any protocols, agreements, memorandums of understanding or contracts” , until January 1, 2012.

Costs

The costs of building and operating the ISS turned out to be much higher than originally planned. In 2005, ESA estimated that around €100 billion ($157 billion or £65.3 billion) would have been spent between the start of work on the ISS project in the late 1980s and its then expected completion in 2010. However, as of today, the end of operation of the station is planned no earlier than 2024, due to the request of the United States, which is unable to undock its segment and continue to fly, the total costs of all countries are estimated at a larger amount.

It is very difficult to accurately estimate the cost of the ISS. For example, it is unclear how Russia's contribution should be calculated, since Roscosmos uses significantly lower dollar rates than other partners.

NASA

Assessing the project as a whole, the largest costs for NASA are the complex of flight support activities and the costs of managing the ISS. In other words, current operating costs account for a much larger portion of the funds spent than the costs of building modules and other station equipment, training crews, and delivery ships.

NASA's spending on the ISS, excluding Shuttle costs, from 1994 to 2005 was $25.6 billion. 2005 and 2006 accounted for approximately $1.8 billion. Annual costs are expected to increase, reaching $2.3 billion by 2010. Then, until the completion of the project in 2016, no increase is planned, only inflationary adjustments.

Distribution of budget funds

An itemized list of NASA's costs can be assessed, for example, from a document published by the space agency, which shows how the $1.8 billion spent by NASA on the ISS in 2005 was distributed:

• Research and development of new equipment- 70 million dollars. This amount was, in particular, spent on the development of navigation systems, information support, and technologies to reduce environmental pollution.
• Flight support- 800 million dollars. This amount included: on a per-ship basis, $125 million for software, spacewalks, supply and maintenance of shuttles; an additional $150 million was spent on the flights themselves, avionics, and crew-ship interaction systems; the remaining $250 million went to general management of the ISS.
• Launching ships and conducting expeditions- $125 million for pre-launch operations at the cosmodrome; $25 million for health care; $300 million spent on expedition management;
• Flight program- $350 million was spent on developing the flight program, maintaining ground equipment and software, for guaranteed and uninterrupted access to the ISS.
• Cargo and crews- $140 million was spent on the purchase of consumables, as well as the ability to deliver cargo and crews on Russian Progress and Soyuz aircraft.

Cost of the Shuttle as part of the cost of the ISS

Of the ten planned flights remaining until 2010, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

As mentioned above, NASA does not include the cost of the Shuttle program in the station's main cost item, since it positions it as a separate project, independent of the ISS. However, from December 1998 to May 2008, only 5 of 31 shuttle flights were not associated with the ISS, and of the remaining eleven planned flights until 2011, only one STS-125 flew not to the station, but to the Hubble telescope.

The approximate costs of the Shuttle program for the delivery of cargo and astronaut crews to the ISS were:

• Excluding the first flight in 1998, from 1999 to 2005, costs amounted to $24 billion. Of these, 20% ($5 billion) were not related to the ISS. Total - 19 billion dollars.
• From 1996 to 2006, it was planned to spend $20.5 billion on flights under the Shuttle program. If we subtract the flight to Hubble from this amount, we end up with the same 19 billion dollars.

That is, NASA’s total costs for flights to the ISS for the entire period will be approximately $38 billion.

Total

Taking into account NASA's plans for the period from 2011 to 2017, as a first approximation, we can obtain an average annual expenditure of $2.5 billion, which for the subsequent period from 2006 to 2017 will be $27.5 billion. Knowing the costs of the ISS from 1994 to 2005 ($25.6 billion) and adding these figures, we get the final official result - $53 billion.

It should also be noted that this figure does not include the significant costs of designing the Freedom space station in the 1980s and early 1990s, and participation in the joint program with Russia to use the Mir station in the 1990s. The developments of these two projects were repeatedly used during the construction of the ISS. Considering this circumstance, and taking into account the situation with the Shuttles, we can talk about a more than double increase in the amount of expenses compared to the official one - more than $100 billion for the United States alone.

ESA

ESA has calculated that its contribution over the 15 years of the project's existence will be 9 billion euros. Costs for the Columbus module exceed 1.4 billion euros (approximately $2.1 billion), including costs for ground control and control systems. The total development cost of the ATV is approximately €1.35 billion, with each Ariane 5 launch costing approximately €150 million.

JAXA

The development of the Japanese Experiment Module, JAXA's main contribution to the ISS, cost approximately 325 billion yen (approximately $2.8 billion).

In 2005, JAXA allocated approximately 40 billion yen (350 million USD) to the ISS program. The annual operating costs of the Japanese experimental module are $350-400 million. In addition, JAXA has committed to developing and launching the H-II transport vehicle, at a total development cost of $1 billion. JAXA's expenses over the 24 years of its participation in the ISS program will exceed $10 billion.

Roscosmos

A significant portion of the Russian Space Agency's budget is spent on the ISS. Since 1998, more than three dozen flights of the Soyuz and Progress spacecraft have been made, which since 2003 have become the main means of delivering cargo and crews. However, the question of how much Russia spends on the station (in US dollars) is not simple. The currently existing 2 modules in orbit are derivatives of the Mir program, and therefore the costs of their development are much lower than for other modules, however, in this case, by analogy with the American programs, the costs of developing the corresponding station modules should also be taken into account. World". In addition, the exchange rate between the ruble and the dollar does not adequately assess the actual costs of Roscosmos.

A rough idea of ​​the Russian space agency's expenses on the ISS can be obtained from its total budget, which for 2005 amounted to 25.156 billion rubles, for 2006 - 31.806, for 2007 - 32.985 and for 2008 - 37.044 billion rubles. Thus, the station costs less than one and a half billion US dollars per year.

CSA

The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is a long-term partner of NASA, so Canada has been involved in the ISS project from the very beginning. Canada's contribution to the ISS is a mobile maintenance system consisting of three parts: a mobile cart that can move along the station's truss structure, a robotic arm called Canadarm2 (Canadarm2), which is mounted on a mobile cart, and a special manipulator called Dextre. ). Over the past 20 years, CSA is estimated to have invested C$1.4 billion into the station.

Criticism

In the entire history of astronautics, the ISS is the most expensive and, perhaps, the most criticized space project. Criticism can be considered constructive or short-sighted, you can agree with it or dispute it, but one thing remains unchanged: the station exists, with its existence it proves the possibility of international cooperation in space and increases humanity’s experience in space flight, spending enormous financial resources on it.

Criticism in the US

The American side's criticism is mainly directed at the cost of the project, which already exceeds $100 billion. This money, according to critics, could be better spent on automated (unmanned) flights to explore near space or on scientific projects carried out on Earth. In response to some of these criticisms, human spaceflight advocates say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted and that the return on human spaceflight and space exploration is in the billions of dollars. Jerome Schnee (English) Jerome Schnee) estimated the indirect economic component of additional revenues associated with space exploration to be many times greater than the initial government investment.

However, a statement from the Federation of American Scientists argues that NASA's profit margin on spin-off revenue is actually very low, except for aeronautical developments that improve aircraft sales.

Critics also say that NASA often counts among its achievements the development of third-party companies whose ideas and developments may have been used by NASA, but had other prerequisites independent of astronautics. What is truly useful and profitable, according to critics, are unmanned navigation, meteorological and military satellites. NASA widely publicizes additional revenues from the construction of the ISS and the work performed on it, while NASA's official list of expenses is much more brief and secretive.

Criticism of scientific aspects

According to Professor Robert Park Robert Park), most of the planned scientific research is not of primary importance. He notes that the goal of most scientific research in a space laboratory is to conduct it in microgravity conditions, which can be done much more cheaply in conditions of artificial weightlessness (in a special plane that flies along a parabolic trajectory). reduced gravity aircraft).

The ISS construction plans included two high-tech components - a magnetic alpha spectrometer and a centrifuge module. Centrifuge Accommodations Module) . The first one has been working at the station since May 2011. The creation of a second one was abandoned in 2005 as a result of a correction in plans for completing construction of the station. Highly specialized experiments carried out on the ISS are limited by the lack of appropriate equipment. For example, in 2007, studies were carried out on the influence of space flight factors on the human body, touching on such aspects as kidney stones, circadian rhythm (the cyclical nature of biological processes in the human body), and the influence of cosmic radiation on the human nervous system. Critics argue that these studies have little practical value, since the reality of today's near-space exploration is unmanned robotic ships.

Criticism of technical aspects

American journalist Jeff Faust Jeff Foust) argued that maintenance of the ISS required too many expensive and dangerous spacewalks. Pacific Astronomical Society The Astronomical Society of the Pacific) At the beginning of the design of the ISS, attention was paid to the too high inclination of the station's orbit. While this makes launches cheaper for the Russian side, it is unprofitable for the American side. The concession that NASA made for the Russian Federation due to the geographical location of Baikonur may ultimately increase the total costs of building the ISS.

In general, the debate in American society boils down to a discussion of the feasibility of the ISS, in the aspect of astronautics in a broader sense. Some advocates argue that, in addition to its scientific value, it is an important example of international cooperation. Others argue that the ISS could potentially, with proper effort and improvements, make flights more cost-effective. One way or another, the main essence of the statements in response to criticism is that it is difficult to expect a serious financial return from the ISS; rather, its main purpose is to become part of the global expansion of space flight capabilities.

Criticism in Russia

In Russia, criticism of the ISS project is mainly aimed at the inactive position of the leadership of the Federal Space Agency (FSA) in defending Russian interests in comparison with the American side, which always strictly monitors compliance with its national priorities.

For example, journalists ask questions about why Russia does not have its own orbital station project, and why money is spent on a project owned by the United States, while these funds could be spent on completely Russian development. According to Vitaly Lopota, head of RSC Energia, the reason for this is contractual obligations and lack of funding.

At one time, the Mir station became for the United States a source of experience in construction and research on the ISS, and after the Columbia accident, the Russian side, acting in accordance with a partnership agreement with NASA and delivering equipment and cosmonauts to the station, almost single-handedly saved the project. These circumstances gave rise to critical statements addressed to the FKA about underestimating the role of Russia in the project. For example, cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya noted that Russia’s scientific and technical contribution to the project is underestimated, and that the partnership agreement with NASA does not meet national interests financially. However, it is worth considering that at the beginning of the construction of the ISS, the Russian segment of the station was paid for by the United States, providing loans, the repayment of which is provided only at the end of construction.

Speaking about the scientific and technical component, journalists note the small number of new scientific experiments carried out at the station, explaining this by the fact that Russia cannot manufacture and supply the necessary equipment to the station due to lack of funds. According to Vitaly Lopota, the situation will change when the simultaneous presence of astronauts on the ISS increases to 6 people. In addition, questions are raised about security measures in force majeure situations associated with a possible loss of control of the station. Thus, according to cosmonaut Valery Ryumin, the danger is that if the ISS becomes uncontrollable, it will not be able to be flooded like the Mir station.

International cooperation, which is one of the main selling points for the station, is also controversial, according to critics. As is known, according to the terms of the international agreement, countries are not obliged to share their scientific developments at the station. During 2006-2007, there were no new major initiatives or major projects in the space sector between Russia and the United States. In addition, many believe that a country that invests 75% of its funds in its project is unlikely to want to have a full partner, which is also its main competitor in the struggle for a leading position in outer space.

It is also criticized that significant funds have been allocated to manned programs, and a number of satellite development programs have failed. In 2003, Yuri Koptev, in an interview with Izvestia, stated that for the sake of the ISS, space science again remained on Earth.

In 2014-2015, experts in the Russian space industry formed the opinion that the practical benefits of orbital stations had already been exhausted - over the past decades, all practically important research and discoveries had been made:

The era of orbital stations, which began in 1971, will be a thing of the past. Experts do not see any practical feasibility either in maintaining the ISS after 2020, or in creating an alternative station with similar functionality: “The scientific and practical returns from the Russian segment of the ISS are significantly lower than from the Salyut-7 and Mir orbital complexes.” Scientific organizations are not interested in repeating what has already been done.

Expert magazine 2015

Delivery ships

The crews of manned expeditions to the ISS are delivered to the station at the Soyuz TPK according to a “short” six-hour schedule. Until March 2013, all expeditions flew to the ISS on a two-day schedule. Until July 2011, cargo delivery, installation of station elements, crew rotation, in addition to the Soyuz TPK, were carried out within the framework of the Space Shuttle program, until the program was completed.

Table of flights of all manned and transport spacecraft to the ISS:

Ship	Type	Agency/country	First flight	Last flight	Total flights