Brian Kelg.
Universe inside you
© 2012 by Brian Clegg
© Translation. LLC "Popurri", 2014
* * *Words of gratitude
Many thanks to Gillian, Chelsea and Rebecca.
I am very grateful to Simon Flinn, Duncan Hita, Andrew Fairloou, Harry Skobble and all employees of the ICON publishing house for help and support.
I would also like to thank scientists who were not lazy to answer my idiotic questions: Dr. Henry Ji, Professor Stephen Carry, Professor Dana Simons, Professor Arnt Maus, Dr. Mike Dunlai, Professor Günther Nimitsa, Professor Friedrich Wilhegelma Helly and Dr. Jennifer Ron.
Introduction
We are accustomed to assume that science is something far from us that scholars in laboratories forced by the strange-type devices are engaged in it, and that they need huge and incredibly complex devices like a large hadron collider. But each of us has their own scientific laboratory - its own body, which is an ultra-empty structure, in the functions of which are reflected in the most different phenomena of science and nature.
In this book, you will use your body as a scientific tool that allows you to reveal the secrets of the universe. Some experiences can be carried out right at home, and for some you have to leave your body and go on a journey to the stars and even further. This is necessary in order to illustrate the fundamental aspects of the science underlying reality, but ultimately we will still return to the most mysterious and complex work of nature - the human body.
Brian Clegg, 20121. Standing in front of the mirror
Stand in front of the mirror, it is desirable that in which they reflect in full growth, and carefully consider yourself. Not passing, as usual, and intently. Perhaps, at the same time, you may not have quite pleasant thoughts, as we tend to pay attention to all sorts of imperfections of the type of extra centimeters on the waist. But it's not about it at all. I want you to consider ourselves as a human being.
Reading this book, you will enjoy your body as a tool for studying a variety of scientific aspects. All of them are present in your body, ranging from chemical reactions occurring in the process of digestion, to the theory of a large explosion and other incomprehensible mysteries of the universe. The body will become your laboratory and observatory.
You can look at it in general as a single object, as a living creature. But you can also go to the details, paying attention to how the body interacts with the environment and uses energy-contained in food. We will be able to consider in it from 10 to 100 trillion cells. Each cell represents a complex unit of life, but if you take each one of them separately, then you will no longer you. If you go even further, then in most body cells, a complex chemical compound can be detected, which is the largest of the known molecules. This is the DNA contained in chromosomes.
Continuing to peer into the details, you will eventually come to atoms from which all matter is. It is already becoming difficult to operate here with the familiar figures, since the organism of an adult consists of about 7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. Usually in this case, use the expression 7 × 1027, which means that 27 nozzles follow. This is a number billion times more than the number of seconds since the emergence of the universe.
Standing in front of the mirror, you can see many more incredible things.
What we see in reflection
After a few minutes, we will deepen with you to the study of the miniature universe, concluded in your body, but for the meantime, let's get a little bit from the outside and look at your reflection. You have a chance to explore one riddle, which does not rest peace for many centuries.
Standing in front of the mirror, lift your right hand. What hand raises your reflection?
From your own experience, you know that left.
Here you are a mystery. The mirror always makes the right side of the left, and vice versa. We are so accustomed to this that we do not even think about why it turns out. Left hand in reflection becomes right. If you close the right eye, the reflection will close the left. If your hair is combed on the left side, the reflection they will be combed on the right. However, the head of reflection will be, like you, be on top, and the legs are below (if the mirror allows you to see yourself in full growth). Why does the mirror change the right and left side, but does not change the top and bottom? Why is it like this in different ways to these two dimensions?
You have the opportunity to approach this problem from scientific positions. Three things are influenced by the appearance of reflection in the mirror: the path that light rays take place between your body and a mirror, the method of perception of these rays (with the help of the eye) and, finally, the method of interpretation of the resulting signals of the brain. We will consider all these aspects in detail below, but one moment attracts attention immediately. Your eyes are arranged horizontally. You have the right and left eyes, but there is no top and bottom. Maybe the change of the sides is explained by this?
Unfortunately no. This is a good hypothesis, but in this case it is incorrect. And there is nothing terrible. Many discoveries in science are committed when a scientist understands that his idea does not correspond to reality. Let's spend a small experiment that will understand what is really happening.
Experiment with mirror
Take the closed book (or magazine) and keep it in front of yourself the face of the cover to yourself. Look at its reflection in the mirror. What do you see? Try to describe what can be seen as precisely as possible. List all the moments that noticed in the reflection. Probably, it will help you understand the mysterious mirror.
First, spend this experience yourself, and then listen that I noticed in it:
All inscriptions on the book are inverted from left to right, and letters have a mirror writing.
The reflection is at the same distance from the surface of the mirror as the book itself.
All reflection colors correspond to the colors of the original.
If in the book that I keep in front of myself, I can see the front side of the cover, then in the reflection - turnover.
Pay special attention to the last item. The book remains the same, but the front side of the cover in the reflection suddenly replaces the revolving. Here it lies at the right. The mirror changes not to the left and right side, but the front and rear.
In fact, it turns the image inside out. The back side of my book in reflection becomes facial. Postpone the book aside and again pay attention to yourself. Imagine that your skin is made of rubber and can stretch as you like. Remove this imaginary skin, carry it through the mirror and, not Turning, remove inside out. The tip of your nose, which before that point forward, towards the mirror, now looks in the opposite direction. Those parts of the body, which were located closer to the mirror, are also located in relation to it and in reflection. Just all your image is turned inside out.
So in fact, the left and right half do not change in places and you do not need to break your head over why the mirror does not change the top and bottom. The reason that you have an illusion of changing the sides, lies in your brain. When you look at your reflection in the mirror, the brain is trying to identify it with you. It is easier for him to do it, mentally unfolding a reflection of 180 degrees. At the same time, the left and right parties change places. However, you should understand that there is no mirror with the change of the parties, but your brain that tries to interpret the received signals in its own way.
Deciding the mysterious mirror, let's now engage in the study of the universe, taking as a basis. And not the most remarkable, but extremely unusual part of your body - human hair.
2. One hairs
Firmly grasp one of the hair on my head and pick it up. Nobody promised that the knowledge of scientific truths would pass painlessly. If you are not configured to endure pain, you can remove the hairs with combs. If you have already bald, take someone else's hair - after requinging the permission, of course! Now take a look that you have in your hand. This is a long, extremely thin and flexible, but surprisingly durable cylinder.
Consider it in all details as much as the vision allows. If you have a microscope at hand, you can use it, but in principle there will be enough magnifying glass.
© 2012 by Brian Clegg
© Translation. LLC "Popurri", 2014
* * *
Words of gratitude
Many thanks to Gillian, Chelsea and Rebecca.
I am very grateful to Simon Flinn, Duncan Hita, Andrew Fairloou, Harry Skobble and all employees of the ICON publishing house for help and support.
I would also like to thank scientists who were not lazy to answer my idiotic questions: Dr. Henry Ji, Professor Stephen Carry, Professor Dana Simons, Professor Arnt Maus, Dr. Mike Dunlai, Professor Günther Nimitsa, Professor Friedrich Wilhegelma Helly and Dr. Jennifer Ron.
Introduction
We are accustomed to assume that science is something far from us that scholars in laboratories forced by the strange-type devices are engaged in it, and that they need huge and incredibly complex devices like a large hadron collider. But each of us has their own scientific laboratory - its own body, which is an ultra-empty structure, in the functions of which are reflected in the most different phenomena of science and nature.
In this book, you will use your body as a scientific tool that allows you to reveal the secrets of the universe. Some experiences can be carried out right at home, and for some you have to leave your body and go on a journey to the stars and even further. This is necessary in order to illustrate the fundamental aspects of the science underlying reality, but ultimately we will still return to the most mysterious and complex work of nature - the human body.
Brian Clegg, 2012
1. Standing in front of the mirror
Stand in front of the mirror, it is desirable that in which they reflect in full growth, and carefully consider yourself. Not passing, as usual, and intently. Perhaps, at the same time, you may not have quite pleasant thoughts, as we tend to pay attention to all sorts of imperfections of the type of extra centimeters on the waist. But it's not about it at all. I want you to consider ourselves as a human being.
Reading this book, you will enjoy your body as a tool for studying a variety of scientific aspects. All of them are present in your body, ranging from chemical reactions occurring in the process of digestion, to the theory of a large explosion and other incomprehensible mysteries of the universe. The body will become your laboratory and observatory.
You can look at it in general as a single object, as a living creature. But you can also go to the details, paying attention to how the body interacts with the environment and uses energy-contained in food. We will be able to consider in it from 10 to 100 trillion cells. Each cell represents a complex unit of life, but if you take each one of them separately, then you will no longer you. If you go even further, then in most body cells, a complex chemical compound can be detected, which is the largest of the known molecules. This is the DNA contained in chromosomes.
Continuing to peer into the details, you will eventually come to atoms from which all matter is. It is already becoming difficult to operate here with the familiar figures, since the organism of an adult consists of about 7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. Usually in this case, use the expression 7 × 1027, which means that 27 nozzles follow. This is a number billion times more than the number of seconds since the emergence of the universe.
Standing in front of the mirror, you can see many more incredible things.
What we see in reflection
After a few minutes, we will deepen with you to the study of the miniature universe, concluded in your body, but for the meantime, let's get a little bit from the outside and look at your reflection. You have a chance to explore one riddle, which does not rest peace for many centuries.
Standing in front of the mirror, lift your right hand. What hand raises your reflection?
From your own experience, you know that left.
Here you are a mystery. The mirror always makes the right side of the left, and vice versa. We are so accustomed to this that we do not even think about why it turns out. Left hand in reflection becomes right. If you close the right eye, the reflection will close the left. If your hair is combed on the left side, the reflection they will be combed on the right. However, the head of reflection will be, like you, be on top, and the legs are below (if the mirror allows you to see yourself in full growth). Why does the mirror change the right and left side, but does not change the top and bottom? Why is it like this in different ways to these two dimensions?
You have the opportunity to approach this problem from scientific positions. Three things are influenced by the appearance of reflection in the mirror: the path that light rays take place between your body and a mirror, the method of perception of these rays (with the help of the eye) and, finally, the method of interpretation of the resulting signals of the brain. We will consider all these aspects in detail below, but one moment attracts attention immediately. Your eyes are arranged horizontally. You have the right and left eyes, but there is no top and bottom. Maybe the change of the sides is explained by this?
Unfortunately no. This is a good hypothesis, but in this case it is incorrect. And there is nothing terrible. Many discoveries in science are committed when a scientist understands that his idea does not correspond to reality. Let's spend a small experiment that will understand what is really happening.
Experiment with mirror
Take the closed book (or magazine) and keep it in front of yourself the face of the cover to yourself. Look at its reflection in the mirror. What do you see? Try to describe what can be seen as precisely as possible. List all the moments that noticed in the reflection. Probably, it will help you understand the mysterious mirror.
First, spend this experience yourself, and then listen that I noticed in it:
All inscriptions on the book are inverted from left to right, and letters have a mirror writing.
The reflection is at the same distance from the surface of the mirror as the book itself.
All reflection colors correspond to the colors of the original.
If in the book that I keep in front of myself, I can see the front side of the cover, then in the reflection - turnover.
Pay special attention to the last item. The book remains the same, but the front side of the cover in the reflection suddenly replaces the revolving. Here it lies at the right. The mirror changes not to the left and right side, but the front and rear.
In fact, it turns the image inside out. The back side of my book in reflection becomes facial. Postpone the book aside and again pay attention to yourself. Imagine that your skin is made of rubber and can stretch as you like. Remove this imaginary skin, carry it through the mirror and, not Turning, remove inside out. The tip of your nose, which before that point forward, towards the mirror, now looks in the opposite direction. Those parts of the body, which were located closer to the mirror, are also located in relation to it and in reflection. Just all your image is turned inside out.
So in fact, the left and right half do not change in places and you do not need to break your head over why the mirror does not change the top and bottom. The reason that you have an illusion of changing the sides, lies in your brain. When you look at your reflection in the mirror, the brain is trying to identify it with you. It is easier for him to do it, mentally unfolding a reflection of 180 degrees. At the same time, the left and right parties change places. However, you should understand that there is no mirror with the change of the parties, but your brain that tries to interpret the received signals in its own way.
Deciding the mysterious mirror, let's now engage in the study of the universe, taking as a basis. And not the most remarkable, but extremely unusual part of your body - human hair.
2. One hairs
Firmly grasp one of the hair on my head and pick it up. Nobody promised that the knowledge of scientific truths would pass painlessly. If you are not configured to endure pain, you can remove the hairs with combs. If you have already bald, take someone else's hair - after requinging the permission, of course! Now take a look that you have in your hand. This is a long, extremely thin and flexible, but surprisingly durable cylinder.
Consider it in all details as much as the vision allows. If you have a microscope at hand, you can use it, but in principle there will be enough magnifying glass.
From this hair begins our way to discoveries in any field of science - from philosophy to physics. Do you doubt that in conventional hair you can find something philosophical? Think ourselves: you are alive, and this hair is your integral part of (In any case, he was so while you did not pull it out). Nevertheless, the hair covering your body is dead. They do not consist of living cells. The same can be said about the nails on your arms and legs. So, you are alive, and some parts of your body are dead.
Recall this when television advertising will once again seduce you with products that breathe in your life "Life and Health". Hair can not be alive, nor healthy. They are dead. Absolutely dead. Does it bother you? Do not worry. They should be like that. After that, it remains only to be surprised that there are plenty of funds that allegedly nourish the hair.
We are talking about a single hair, but you have a lot of them (I hope), and all over the body. On an average of 100 thousand hair, it is growing on a man's head, although blondes, this value is usually deflected in a large side, and the redheads are smaller. When we look at a separate hair, its color is not so noticeable, as in the composition of the chapels, nevertheless it is.
Natural color
Hair color depends on two pigment options called "Melanin". One of them is feomelain - gives hair red hair. Other shades of colors, from the brightest to the very dark, depend on the number of another type of this pigment - Eumelinine, which is the original form of hair pigment. Redhead hair appeared as a result of mutation at a stage of human development.
As agrees, the number of pigments in the hair decreases up to complete disappearance. In the gray hair, melanin-based pigments are completely absent. In fact, gray hair is colorless, but their shape and internal structure when passing through them light create an effect of white or grayish color.
Display the inner structure of the hair with a naked eye will not be able, but under the microscope it becomes obvious that it is not just a certain homogeneous fiber. In fact, there are three layers in the hair: internal (almost empty); Middle (Cortex) having a complex structure containing pigments and able to absorb water and swell; and external (cuticle) covered with tiny flakes and possessing water-repellent properties.
Human hair
At one end of the hair (on the one you pulled out of the skin) you can see the remnants of the follicle, which is usually hidden under the skin. The follicle is responsible for the formation and growth of the hair and is its only vibrant part.
Artificial painting of hair
When we say that the hair color depends on the amount of melanin contained in them, then it meant the natural color. However, many people from time to time change the color of the hair using the discoloration compositions and dyes for this. The discoloration is surprisingly complex mechanism. This is not just applying paint on your hair. The process of resistant hair discoloration would be more appropriate for a chemical laboratory than for beauty salon.
Initially, the ammonia type substance opens the hair rod, providing access to the cortex, and then the discoloring composition oxidizes and decomposes natural pigments.
After that, if necessary, another dye can be added, which also penetrates the Cortex. For less resistant staining, dyes are used that cover only the cuticle and are easy to clean.
Hair loss concerns
The hair is almost every person, but compared to most of the other mammals, they are not so thick and abundant. The case, in general, not even in quantity. We have approximately the same amount of hair, as well as in the comparable size of chimpanzees, but most of our hair are so small that they are almost not visible.
The next time you freeze or experience a sudden fright, look at the skin of your hands. Most likely, you will see goosebumps, or goose skin. This phenomenon is directly related to the hair (the hair literally stands on end) and indicates that our ancestors, like most mammals, were covered with thick hair.
The appearance of goosebumps is due to the fact that the tiny muscles located near the roots of the hair are strained and lifted hair perpendicular to the surface of the skin. If you had thick wool, it would have become more voluminous and would acquire the best heat shielding properties by increasing the amount of air in it. In the cold season, it might serve you a good service, but we lost almost all the hair on the body, and now this effect does not warm us at all, but only gives the skin a strange look.
Similarly, the hair stands on end, when we are scared with something. This is also a manifestation of an ancient protective reaction, which currently lost all meaning. Many mammals, feeling a threat, so wool paint to look more and stronger. (Try to bring the cat to the dog. The cat is not only "silent", but also will bring back to seem more.) Obviously, in ancient times we behaved the same way, but now this effect does not work, as the wool on the body We are not left. Hair, as before, get up, but the sizes do not add us.
The absence of natural woolen cover greatly upset me when I recently went to walk my dog. It was cold, and I dressed clearly not on the weather. On me there was only a shirt with short sleeves. I drove fine rain, my sneakers were grooking in the grass and rushed at every step. In addition, passing by some kind of fence, I managed to get a naked hand in thick thieves of nettle.
But the dog covered with thick wool was not to do with the weather, and on nettle. Nature supplied it much best tools Survival than me.
I was always surprised why people are so poorly adapted to bad weather and various hazards. We know that our distant ancestors had thick long wool, as well as in modern man-like monkeys. (By the way, chimpanzees and gorilla are not our ancestors, although many mistakenly consider them as such.) It seems completely illogical that the human race has already lost its protective wool at an early stage of its development.
Of course, it would be naive to believe that evolution acts in our interests. She does not pursue any other interests. Usually evolution only selects small development options that contribute to the survival and reproduction of some particular individual. It does not analyze and does not argue: "This is good. We will save it. " But even in this case it seems unlikely that the loss of warm and possessing other protective properties of natural fur gave a person some evolutionary advantages.
Evolution is having a deck, but this does not mean that all genetic maps, which appeal in our hands after distributing, will definitely be advantageous. If we had some definite feature during the evolution, it does not mean that it will give us an advantage. With the same success, this feature may turn out to be a side effect of some other evolutionary process. For example, many birds wings are easy to break, because they consist of thin hollow bones. In weak bones as such there is nothing good. They do not contribute to survival, but it is help to reduce body weight, which is necessary for flight.
Approximately 100 thousand years ago, our distant ancestors finally acquired the appearance of a modern person. This has completed our evolution on this. From a biological point of view, we do not differ from them. After that, there were still many minor changes at the genetic level, but as a biological species we remain all the same. We have the same potential physical strength, longevity, attracting the opposite sex, thinking, etc.
Many thousand years ago, our distant ancestor (which was common with chimpanzees and other major man-like monkeys) has undergone significant evolutionary changes. He lost most of the hairproof, and he remained only fine sensitive skin. Our ancestor switched from moving on all fours to straightening. The size of his brain increased greatly, and the head became disproportionately large compared to the body (at that time it was probably perceived as not the most attractive feature of appearance). The mouth decreased, as a result of which the teeth became harder to use as weapons. The opposition of large fingers on the legs disappeared, which was previously the opportunity to bite the feet of the branch of the trees.
In general, all these changes did ancient man more vulnerable to predators. Naked skin has poorly protected from claws and fangs. Walking on two legs was unstable and clumsy. Any rabbit could overtake this creature, with difficulty retaining balance. It seems that the only reasonable explanation to all these changes could be what they were side effects. If we consider them in conjunction with changes in behavior, it turns out that this is an acceptable price that has had to pay for progress.
Physical modifications in the body of an ancient man were most likely an indirect result cardinal changes ambient. A sharp change of global climate forced an ancient person to get out of the forest, providing him with good defense, on the open space of the savanna. Faced there with strong predators, he was forced to change his behavior for the purpose of survival. In those days, ancient people have not been able to interact as part of large groups. It is still we are watching our closest relatives. Chimpanzees, for example, are not able to form large groups and cooperate. If you get together several males, the result will be a bloody side, as everyone will strive for dominance.
Ancient people who wander on the expanses of Savannn five million years ago, apparently, did not differ much from males chimpanzees. However, fierce predators of those times, ranging from saber-tops of Dinofelis and Mahaiodov, reaching the size of a lion, and ending with the most familiar to us with hyenas, forced them to change their behavior. Only those who possessed natural abilities to cooperate could survive. Our ancestors began to live in large groups, which provided them with the advantage over the predators. Such changes in behavior may have led to the emergence of side physical effects that we observe from a modern person.
Examples of the suppression of aggression and demonstration of the ability to cooperate we can observe in human monkeys in childhood. Upon reaching maturity, this ability to interact in large groups of our relatives disappears. It can be assumed that among our ancestors used those individuals who did not cause the aggression of their relatives, as they looked immature and physically underdeveloped: they had a hairless body, a big head, a little mouth and often stood on two legs. This is how young primates look like at a certain stage of development, although with age these features of appearance and behavior disappear.
By the way, a similar mechanism for the selection of individuals who had the features of the young was used by people for domestication of animals. A dog, for example, has much more similar features with a young wolf than with an adult wolf, from which it happened. And this is not just the theory. During a wonderful long-term experiment conducted from the 1950s to the 1990s, Russian Genetic Dmitry Belyaev brought the homemade of silvery-black foxes and thereby showed how ancient people managed to turn the wolf into the dog.
40 years later (which is very long for the experiment, but is only a moment from the point of view of evolution) the descendants of wild fox began to resemble domestic dogs. They have rounded the outlines of the muzzle, they hung over before the ears, the tight mobility increased. The color of the skins ceased to be homogeneous, the color variations and patterns appeared on it. Homemade fox spent more time in games and willingly recognized the leadership of adults. The greater tendency to cooperate, they demonstrated, the more they became similar in appearance and the chants not on adult individuals, but on the Lisyat-overgrowts.
But back to the people. In the process of establishing cooperation in the group, they acquired more and more infantile features, which was expressed in the loss of most hair on the body, like a modern person. The exception was only the head. The hair on the head grows very abundantly and, unlike the hair on other parts of the body (and from other mammals), continue to grow throughout life.
As in the case of total loss Hair, this phenomenon can have several explanations. It is possible that initially hair on the head had a fixed length, but over time, constantly began to grow as a result of natural selection. Probably, these mutations have consolidated due to the fact that long hair Better protects the brain or hair growth has become a side effect of wearing clothes, as the head turned out to be the only part of the body, not covered with clothing. Perhaps long hair was better protected from direct exposure to sunlight at noon (and it can be quite strong, which will confirm you any owner of the bald). There may be other, a wide variety of explanations.
In fact, the establishment of accurate "reasons" of evolutionary changes is an extremely difficult task, since we cannot directly observe what happened in that period of time, or to carry out an experiment proving one or another theory. This is a little reminding the situation when financial analysts declare in the news that the stock market collapsed "due to insufficient public confidence in the government" or for some other reasons. No one knows exactly why the market demonstrates such a development trend. Similarly, no one is able to explain why humanity developed in a particular direction. All this is only assumptions.
© 2012 by Brian Clegg
© Translation. LLC "Popurri", 2014
* * *
Words of gratitude
Many thanks to Gillian, Chelsea and Rebecca.
I am very grateful to Simon Flinn, Duncan Hita, Andrew Fairloou, Harry Skobble and all employees of the ICON publishing house for help and support.
I would also like to thank scientists who were not lazy to answer my idiotic questions: Dr. Henry Ji, Professor Stephen Carry, Professor Dana Simons, Professor Arnt Maus, Dr. Mike Dunlai, Professor Günther Nimitsa, Professor Friedrich Wilhegelma Helly and Dr. Jennifer Ron.
Introduction
We are accustomed to assume that science is something far from us that scholars in laboratories forced by the strange-type devices are engaged in it, and that they need huge and incredibly complex devices like a large hadron collider. But each of us has their own scientific laboratory - its own body, which is an ultra-empty structure, in the functions of which are reflected in the most different phenomena of science and nature.
In this book, you will use your body as a scientific tool that allows you to reveal the secrets of the universe. Some experiences can be carried out right at home, and for some you have to leave your body and go on a journey to the stars and even further. This is necessary in order to illustrate the fundamental aspects of the science underlying reality, but ultimately we will still return to the most mysterious and complex work of nature - the human body.
Brian Clegg, 2012
1. Standing in front of the mirror
Stand in front of the mirror, it is desirable that in which they reflect in full growth, and carefully consider yourself. Not passing, as usual, and intently. Perhaps, at the same time, you may not have quite pleasant thoughts, as we tend to pay attention to all sorts of imperfections of the type of extra centimeters on the waist. But it's not about it at all. I want you to consider ourselves as a human being.
Reading this book, you will enjoy your body as a tool for studying a variety of scientific aspects. All of them are present in your body, ranging from chemical reactions occurring in the process of digestion, to the theory of a large explosion and other incomprehensible mysteries of the universe. The body will become your laboratory and observatory.
You can look at it in general as a single object, as a living creature. But you can also go to the details, paying attention to how the body interacts with the environment and uses energy-contained in food. We will be able to consider in it from 10 to 100 trillion cells. Each cell represents a complex unit of life, but if you take each one of them separately, then you will no longer you. If you go even further, then in most body cells, a complex chemical compound can be detected, which is the largest of the known molecules. This is the DNA contained in chromosomes.
Continuing to peer into the details, you will eventually come to atoms from which all matter is. It is already becoming difficult to operate here with the familiar figures, since the organism of an adult consists of about 7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. Usually in this case, use the expression 7 × 1027, which means that 27 nozzles follow. This is a number billion times more than the number of seconds since the emergence of the universe.
Standing in front of the mirror, you can see many more incredible things.
What we see in reflection
After a few minutes, we will deepen with you to the study of the miniature universe, concluded in your body, but for the meantime, let's get a little bit from the outside and look at your reflection. You have a chance to explore one riddle, which does not rest peace for many centuries.
Standing in front of the mirror, lift your right hand. What hand raises your reflection?
From your own experience, you know that left.
Here you are a mystery. The mirror always makes the right side of the left, and vice versa. We are so accustomed to this that we do not even think about why it turns out. Left hand in reflection becomes right. If you close the right eye, the reflection will close the left. If your hair is combed on the left side, the reflection they will be combed on the right. However, the head of reflection will be, like you, be on top, and the legs are below (if the mirror allows you to see yourself in full growth). Why does the mirror change the right and left side, but does not change the top and bottom? Why is it like this in different ways to these two dimensions?
You have the opportunity to approach this problem from scientific positions. Three things are influenced by the appearance of reflection in the mirror: the path that light rays take place between your body and a mirror, the method of perception of these rays (with the help of the eye) and, finally, the method of interpretation of the resulting signals of the brain. We will consider all these aspects in detail below, but one moment attracts attention immediately. Your eyes are arranged horizontally. You have the right and left eyes, but there is no top and bottom. Maybe the change of the sides is explained by this?
Unfortunately no. This is a good hypothesis, but in this case it is incorrect. And there is nothing terrible. Many discoveries in science are committed when a scientist understands that his idea does not correspond to reality. Let's spend a small experiment that will understand what is really happening.
Experiment with mirror
Take the closed book (or magazine) and keep it in front of yourself the face of the cover to yourself. Look at its reflection in the mirror. What do you see? Try to describe what can be seen as precisely as possible. List all the moments that noticed in the reflection. Probably, it will help you understand the mysterious mirror.
First, spend this experience yourself, and then listen that I noticed in it:
All inscriptions on the book are inverted from left to right, and letters have a mirror writing.
The reflection is at the same distance from the surface of the mirror as the book itself.
All reflection colors correspond to the colors of the original.
If in the book that I keep in front of myself, I can see the front side of the cover, then in the reflection - turnover.
Pay special attention to the last item. The book remains the same, but the front side of the cover in the reflection suddenly replaces the revolving. Here it lies at the right. The mirror changes not to the left and right side, but the front and rear.
In fact, it turns the image inside out. The back side of my book in reflection becomes facial. Postpone the book aside and again pay attention to yourself. Imagine that your skin is made of rubber and can stretch as you like. Remove this imaginary skin, carry it through the mirror and, not Turning, remove inside out. The tip of your nose, which before that point forward, towards the mirror, now looks in the opposite direction. Those parts of the body, which were located closer to the mirror, are also located in relation to it and in reflection. Just all your image is turned inside out.
So in fact, the left and right half do not change in places and you do not need to break your head over why the mirror does not change the top and bottom. The reason that you have an illusion of changing the sides, lies in your brain. When you look at your reflection in the mirror, the brain is trying to identify it with you. It is easier for him to do it, mentally unfolding a reflection of 180 degrees. At the same time, the left and right parties change places. However, you should understand that there is no mirror with the change of the parties, but your brain that tries to interpret the received signals in its own way.
Deciding the mysterious mirror, let's now engage in the study of the universe, taking as a basis. And not the most remarkable, but extremely unusual part of your body - human hair.
© 2012 by Brian Clegg
© Translation. LLC "Popurri", 2014
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Words of gratitude
Many thanks to Gillian, Chelsea and Rebecca.
I am very grateful to Simon Flinn, Duncan Hita, Andrew Fairloou, Harry Skobble and all employees of the ICON publishing house for help and support.
I would also like to thank scientists who were not lazy to answer my idiotic questions: Dr. Henry Ji, Professor Stephen Carry, Professor Dana Simons, Professor Arnt Maus, Dr. Mike Dunlai, Professor Günther Nimitsa, Professor Friedrich Wilhegelma Helly and Dr. Jennifer Ron.
Introduction
We are accustomed to assume that science is something far from us that scholars in laboratories forced by the strange-type devices are engaged in it, and that they need huge and incredibly complex devices like a large hadron collider. But each of us has their own scientific laboratory - its own body, which is an ultra-empty structure, in the functions of which are reflected in the most different phenomena of science and nature.
In this book, you will use your body as a scientific tool that allows you to reveal the secrets of the universe. Some experiences can be carried out right at home, and for some you have to leave your body and go on a journey to the stars and even further. This is necessary in order to illustrate the fundamental aspects of the science underlying reality, but ultimately we will still return to the most mysterious and complex work of nature - the human body.
Brian Clegg, 2012
1. Standing in front of the mirror
Stand in front of the mirror, it is desirable that in which they reflect in full growth, and carefully consider yourself. Not passing, as usual, and intently. Perhaps, at the same time, you may not have quite pleasant thoughts, as we tend to pay attention to all sorts of imperfections of the type of extra centimeters on the waist. But it's not about it at all. I want you to consider ourselves as a human being.
Reading this book, you will enjoy your body as a tool for studying a variety of scientific aspects. All of them are present in your body, ranging from chemical reactions occurring in the process of digestion, to the theory of a large explosion and other incomprehensible mysteries of the universe. The body will become your laboratory and observatory.
You can look at it in general as a single object, as a living creature. But you can also go to the details, paying attention to how the body interacts with the environment and uses energy-contained in food. We will be able to consider in it from 10 to 100 trillion cells. Each cell represents a complex unit of life, but if you take each one of them separately, then you will no longer you. If you go even further, then in most body cells, a complex chemical compound can be detected, which is the largest of the known molecules.
This is the DNA contained in chromosomes.
Continuing to peer into the details, you will eventually come to atoms from which all matter is. It is already becoming difficult to operate here with the familiar figures, since the organism of an adult consists of about 7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. Usually in this case use the expression 7? 1027, which means that 27 nozzles followed by seven. This is a number billion times more than the number of seconds since the emergence of the universe.
Standing in front of the mirror, you can see many more incredible things.
What we see in reflection
After a few minutes, we will deepen with you to the study of the miniature universe, concluded in your body, but for the meantime, let's get a little bit from the outside and look at your reflection. You have a chance to explore one riddle, which does not rest peace for many centuries.
Standing in front of the mirror, lift your right hand. What hand raises your reflection?
From your own experience, you know that left.
Here you are a mystery. The mirror always makes the right side of the left, and vice versa. We are so accustomed to this that we do not even think about why it turns out. Left hand in reflection becomes right. If you close the right eye, the reflection will close the left. If your hair is combed on the left side, the reflection they will be combed on the right. However, the head of reflection will be, like you, be on top, and the legs are below (if the mirror allows you to see yourself in full growth). Why does the mirror change the right and left side, but does not change the top and bottom? Why is it like this in different ways to these two dimensions?
You have the opportunity to approach this problem from scientific positions. Three things are influenced by the appearance of reflection in the mirror: the path that light rays take place between your body and a mirror, the method of perception of these rays (with the help of the eye) and, finally, the method of interpretation of the resulting signals of the brain. We will consider all these aspects in detail below, but one moment attracts attention immediately. Your eyes are arranged horizontally. You have the right and left eyes, but there is no top and bottom. Maybe the change of the sides is explained by this?
Unfortunately no. This is a good hypothesis, but in this case it is incorrect. And there is nothing terrible. Many discoveries in science are committed when a scientist understands that his idea does not correspond to reality. Let's spend a small experiment that will understand what is really happening.
Experiment with mirror
Take the closed book (or magazine) and keep it in front of yourself the face of the cover to yourself. Look at its reflection in the mirror. What do you see? Try to describe what can be seen as precisely as possible. List all the moments that noticed in the reflection. Probably, it will help you understand the mysterious mirror.
First, spend this experience yourself, and then listen that I noticed in it:
All inscriptions on the book are inverted from left to right, and letters have a mirror writing.
The reflection is at the same distance from the surface of the mirror as the book itself.
All reflection colors correspond to the colors of the original.
If in the book that I keep in front of myself, I can see the front side of the cover, then in the reflection - turnover.
Pay special attention to the last item. The book remains the same, but the front side of the cover in the reflection suddenly replaces the revolving. Here it lies at the right. The mirror changes not to the left and right side, but the front and rear.
In fact, it turns the image inside out. The back side of my book in reflection becomes facial. Postpone the book aside and again pay attention to yourself. Imagine that your skin is made of rubber and can stretch as you like. Remove this imaginary skin, carry it through the mirror and, not Turning, remove inside out. The tip of your nose, which before that point forward, towards the mirror, now looks in the opposite direction. Those parts of the body, which were located closer to the mirror, are also located in relation to it and in reflection. Just all your image is turned inside out.
So in fact, the left and right half do not change in places and you do not need to break your head over why the mirror does not change the top and bottom. The reason that you have an illusion of changing the sides, lies in your brain. When you look at your reflection in the mirror, the brain is trying to identify it with you. It is easier for him to do it, mentally unfolding a reflection of 180 degrees. At the same time, the left and right parties change places. However, you should understand that there is no mirror with the change of the parties, but your brain that tries to interpret the received signals in its own way.
Deciding the mysterious mirror, let's now engage in the study of the universe, taking as a basis. And not the most remarkable, but extremely unusual part of your body - human hair.
2. One hairs
Firmly grasp one of the hair on my head and pick it up. Nobody promised that the knowledge of scientific truths would pass painlessly. If you are not configured to endure pain, you can remove the hairs with combs. If you have already bald, take someone else's hair - after requinging the permission, of course! Now take a look that you have in your hand. This is a long, extremely thin and flexible, but surprisingly durable cylinder.
Consider it in all details as much as the vision allows. If you have a microscope at hand, you can use it, but in principle there will be enough magnifying glass.
From this hair begins our way to discoveries in any field of science - from philosophy to physics. Do you doubt that in conventional hair you can find something philosophical? Think ourselves: you are alive, and this hair is your integral part (in any case, it was as such as you did not wear it). Nevertheless, the hair covering your body is dead. They do not consist of living cells. The same can be said about the nails on your arms and legs. So, you are alive, and some parts of your body are dead.
Recall this when television advertising will once again seduce you with products that breathe in your life "Life and Health". Hair can not be alive, nor healthy. They are dead. Absolutely dead. Does it bother you? Do not worry. They should be like that. After that, it remains only to be surprised that there are plenty of funds that allegedly nourish the hair.
We are talking about a single hair, but you have a lot of them (I hope), and all over the body. On an average of 100 thousand hair, it is growing on a man's head, although blondes, this value is usually deflected in a large side, and the redheads are smaller. When we look at a separate hair, its color is not so noticeable, as in the composition of the chapels, nevertheless it is.
Natural color
Hair color depends on two pigment options called "Melanin". One of them is feomelain - gives hair red hair. Other shades of colors, from the brightest to the very dark, depend on the number of another type of this pigment - Eumelinine, which is the original form of hair pigment. Redhead hair appeared as a result of mutation at a stage of human development.
As agrees, the number of pigments in the hair decreases up to complete disappearance. In the gray hair, melanin-based pigments are completely absent. In fact, gray hair is colorless, but their shape and internal structure when passing through them light create an effect of white or grayish color.
Display the inner structure of the hair with a naked eye will not be able, but under the microscope it becomes obvious that it is not just a certain homogeneous fiber. In fact, there are three layers in the hair: internal (almost empty); Middle (Cortex) having a complex structure containing pigments and able to absorb water and swell; and external (cuticle) covered with tiny flakes and possessing water-repellent properties.
Human hair
At one end of the hair (on the one you pulled out of the skin) you can see the remnants of the follicle, which is usually hidden under the skin. The follicle is responsible for the formation and growth of the hair and is its only vibrant part.
Artificial painting of hair
When we say that the hair color depends on the amount of melanin contained in them, then it meant the natural color. However, many people from time to time change the color of the hair using the discoloration compositions and dyes for this. The discoloration is surprisingly complex mechanism. This is not just applying paint on your hair. The process of resistant hair discoloration would be more appropriate for a chemical laboratory than for beauty salon.
Initially, the ammonia type substance opens the hair rod, providing access to the cortex, and then the discoloring composition oxidizes and decomposes natural pigments.
After that, if necessary, another dye can be added, which also penetrates the Cortex. For less resistant staining, dyes are used that cover only the cuticle and are easy to clean.
Hair loss concerns
The hair is almost every person, but compared to most of the other mammals, they are not so thick and abundant. The case, in general, not even in quantity. We have approximately the same amount of hair, as well as in the comparable size of chimpanzees, but most of our hair are so small that they are almost not visible.
The next time you freeze or experience a sudden fright, look at the skin of your hands. Most likely, you will see goosebumps, or goose skin. This phenomenon is directly related to the hair (the hair literally stands on end) and indicates that our ancestors, like most mammals, were covered with thick hair.
The appearance of goosebumps is due to the fact that the tiny muscles located near the roots of the hair are strained and lifted hair perpendicular to the surface of the skin. If you had thick wool, it would have become more voluminous and would acquire the best heat shielding properties by increasing the amount of air in it. In the cold season, it might serve you a good service, but we lost almost all the hair on the body, and now this effect does not warm us at all, but only gives the skin a strange look.
Similarly, the hair stands on end, when we are scared with something. This is also a manifestation of an ancient protective reaction, which currently lost all meaning. Many mammals, feeling a threat, so wool paint to look more and stronger. (Try to bring the cat to the dog. The cat is not only "silent", but also will bring back to seem more.) Obviously, in ancient times we behaved the same way, but now this effect does not work, as the wool on the body We are not left. Hair, as before, get up, but the sizes do not add us.
The absence of natural woolen cover greatly upset me when I recently went to walk my dog. It was cold, and I dressed clearly not on the weather. On me there was only a shirt with short sleeves. I drove fine rain, my sneakers were grooking in the grass and rushed at every step. In addition, passing by some kind of fence, I managed to get a naked hand in thick thieves of nettle.
But the dog covered with thick wool was not to do with the weather, and on nettle. Nature supplied it much better survival to me.
I was always surprised why people are so poorly adapted to bad weather and various hazards. We know that our distant ancestors had thick long wool, as well as in modern man-like monkeys. (By the way, chimpanzees and gorilla are not our ancestors, although many mistakenly consider them as such.) It seems completely illogical that the human race has already lost its protective wool at an early stage of its development.
Of course, it would be naive to believe that evolution acts in our interests. She does not pursue any other interests. Usually evolution only selects small development options that contribute to the survival and reproduction of some particular individual. It does not analyze and does not argue: "This is good. We will save it. " But even in this case it seems unlikely that the loss of warm and possessing other protective properties of natural fur gave a person some evolutionary advantages.
Evolution is having a deck, but this does not mean that all genetic maps, which appeal in our hands after distributing, will definitely be advantageous. If we had some definite feature during the evolution, it does not mean that it will give us an advantage. With the same success, this feature may turn out to be a side effect of some other evolutionary process. For example, many birds wings are easy to break, because they consist of thin hollow bones. In weak bones as such there is nothing good. They do not contribute to survival, but it is help to reduce body weight, which is necessary for flight.
Approximately 100 thousand years ago, our distant ancestors finally acquired the appearance of a modern person. This has completed our evolution on this. From a biological point of view, we do not differ from them. After that, there were still many minor changes at the genetic level, but as a biological species we remain all the same. We have the same potential of physical strength, longevity, attracting individuals of the opposite sex, thinking, etc.
Many thousand years ago, our distant ancestor (which was common with chimpanzees and other major man-like monkeys) has undergone significant evolutionary changes. He lost most of the hairproof, and he remained only fine sensitive skin. Our ancestor switched from moving on all fours to straightening. The size of his brain increased greatly, and the head became disproportionately large compared to the body (at that time it was probably perceived as not the most attractive feature of appearance). The mouth decreased, as a result of which the teeth became harder to use as weapons. The opposition of large fingers on the legs disappeared, which was previously the opportunity to bite the feet of the branch of the trees.
In general, all these changes made an ancient person more vulnerable to predators. Naked skin has poorly protected from claws and fangs. Walking on two legs was unstable and clumsy. Any rabbit could overtake this creature, with difficulty retaining balance. It seems that the only reasonable explanation to all these changes could be that they were side effects. If we consider them in conjunction with changes in behavior, it turns out that this is an acceptable price that has had to pay for progress.
Physical modifications in the body of an ancient man were most likely an indirect result of fundamental environmental changes. A sharp change of global climate forced an ancient person to get out of the forest, providing him with good defense, on the open space of the savanna. Faced there with strong predators, he was forced to change his behavior for the purpose of survival. In those days, ancient people have not been able to interact as part of large groups. It is still we are watching our closest relatives. Chimpanzees, for example, are not able to form large groups and cooperate. If you get together several males, the result will be a bloody side, as everyone will strive for dominance.
Ancient people who wander on the expanses of Savannn five million years ago, apparently, did not differ much from males chimpanzees. However, fierce predators of those times, ranging from saber-tops of Dinofelis and Mahaiodov, reaching the size of a lion, and ending with the most familiar to us with hyenas, forced them to change their behavior. Only those who possessed natural abilities to cooperate could survive. Our ancestors began to live in large groups, which provided them with the advantage over the predators. Such changes in behavior may have led to the emergence of side physical effects that we observe from a modern person.
Examples of the suppression of aggression and demonstration of the ability to cooperate we can observe in human monkeys in childhood. Upon reaching maturity, this ability to interact in large groups of our relatives disappears. It can be assumed that among our ancestors used those individuals who did not cause the aggression of their relatives, as they looked immature and physically underdeveloped: they had a hairless body, a big head, a little mouth and often stood on two legs. This is how young primates look like at a certain stage of development, although with age these features of appearance and behavior disappear.
By the way, a similar mechanism for the selection of individuals who had the features of the young was used by people for domestication of animals. A dog, for example, has much more similar features with a young wolf than with an adult wolf, from which it happened. And this is not just the theory. During a wonderful long-term experiment, held in the period from 1950? X to 1990. E years, Russian Genetic Dmitry Belyaev brought the homemade stream of silver-black foxes and thereby showed how ancient people managed to turn the wolf into the dog.
40 years later (which is very long for the experiment, but is only a moment from the point of view of evolution) the descendants of wild fox began to resemble domestic dogs. They have rounded the outlines of the muzzle, they hung over before the ears, the tight mobility increased. The color of the skins ceased to be homogeneous, the color variations and patterns appeared on it. Homemade fox spent more time in games and willingly recognized the leadership of adults. The greater tendency to cooperate, they demonstrated, the more they became similar in appearance and the chants not on adult individuals, but on the Lisyat-overgrowts.
