Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus
EE “Vitebsk State University named after P.M. Masherov "
Examination in athletics.
"Development of endurance in the lessons of athletics"
Performed:
V-year student of the 54th group
OZO FFKiS
Mikheiko Maria Sergeevna.
Vitebsk 2010
Endurance is the ability of a person to perform work of a given intensity for a long time, i.e. resist fatigue.
Endurance is provided by the activity of the whole organism. First of all, endurance depends on the activity of the cerebral cortex, which determines and regulates the state of the central nervous system and the performance of all organs and systems.
Endurance is general and special. General endurance is characterized by the ability of a person to perform any work of moderate intensity for a long time. Special endurance is the performance by a person of specific work of optimal intensity for his activity.
The physiological basis of a person's general endurance is aerobic capacity - the body's ability to deliver and use oxygen for energy production while performing physical work. The generally accepted measure of aerobic endurance is considered to be BMD, which is determined by other factors of oxygen transport and the level of tissue respiration.
Aerobic performance of the heart and lungs is provided by increased heart volume, stroke and minute blood volume, and increased pulmonary ventilation. It is these parameters that are significantly improved during endurance training (adaptation to “volume stress”).
The aerobic capacity of the body is to a certain extent determined by the composition - the ratio of slow and fast muscle fibers in the muscle tissue. Aerobic metabolic capacity is significantly higher in slow fibers, and their increased content is an important prerequisite for an increase in BMD. An increase in oxygen consumption by working muscles is associated with an increase in the concentration of mitochondria in skeletal muscles and a more active utilization of oxygen from the blood (an increase in the arteriovenous difference). Increased oxygen consumption by working muscles is just as important for high BMD as an increase in cardiac peak performance due to higher systolic volume.
Age dynamics of the natural development of endurance.
Endurance, like other physical qualities, has an uneven nature of natural development. So, the general endurance of boys has high growth rates from 8-9 to 10, from 11 to 12 and from 14 to 15 years. At the age of 15 to 16, the rate of development of general endurance in young men sharply decreases. In other age periods, average growth rates are observed.
Boys' speed endurance has a high natural rate of increase between the ages of 13 to 14 and 15 to 16. The average rate of development of speed endurance falls on the age from 11 to 13, from 14 to 15 and from 16 to 17 years. The age period from 9 to 11 is characterized by low rates of natural development of speed endurance.
The dynamics of the natural development of general endurance in women is of a different nature than in men. High growth rates are observed from 10 to 13 years. Then, over the course of two years, overall endurance increases slowly. The average rate of its growth falls on the age from 15 to 17 years.
The highest absolute values \u200b\u200bof indicators of different types of endurance are observed in people who have reached biological maturity. Obviously, this is why the highest world achievements in sports, which require the utmost manifestation of endurance, are predominantly in the age period from 20-22 to 30-32 years.
Based on the doctrine of critical periods in the development of physical qualities, it is emphasized to develop endurance most expediently in the age periods of its rapid development.
Stamina training methods.
The main methods for the development of general endurance are: 1) the method of continuous (continuous) exercise with a load of moderate and variable intensity; 2) the method of repeated interval exercise; 3) the method of circular training; 4) play method; 5) competitive method.
Uniform method. It is characterized by continuous continuous operation with uniform speed or effort. The duration of work, depending on the level of preparedness of the trainees, ranges from 10-15 minutes to 60-90 minutes. Work less than 4-5 minutes is ineffective, since the respiratory processes do not have time to develop and bring the oxygen transport system (heart, blood vessels, respiration) to the maximum level of oxygen consumption.
The intensity of exercise (movement speed) should increase gradually: from low heart rate values \u200b\u200b(120-130 beats / min) to optimal (140-170 beats / min). Such gradualness is necessary for the adaptation of the cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular, endocrine and other systems of the body. Low-intensity work does not contribute to the activation of aerobic metabolism, so it is unproductive.
As the functional capabilities of the organism of those involved in the work increase, the duration of continuous work and its intensity gradually increase.
Variable method. It differs from uniform by sequential variation of the load during continuous exercise (for example, running) by directional change of speed, tempo, range of motion, amount of effort, etc. It is often called "fartlek" (speed play). It involves increasing and decreasing intensity at regular intervals. By the end of the intensive section of work, the heart rate increases to 170-175 beats / min, and by the end of the low-intensity section it decreases to 140-145 beats / min.
Interval method. It is characterized by performance of work in the form of high-intensity, but short-term repetitions, separated by small (strictly dosed) intervals of rest between loads. The duration of work to increase aerobic performance is 1-2 minutes. A shorter time does not allow to activate the work of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and a longer time causes a decrease in the intensity of work. The intensity of work should contribute to an increase in heart rate up to 160-170 beats / min by the end of the exercise. Rest intervals are made of such duration that the heart rate does not drop below 120-130 beats / min by the end of the rest. Typically, rest intervals between exercises are 1-3 minutes. The nature of the rest should be active in the form of low-intensity motor activity (for example, slow walking), which simultaneously accelerates the recovery of the body and supports its increased functioning.
The number of repetitions of the exercise depends on the individual abilities of the trainee to carry out work in conditions of significant oxygen consumption. It is recommended to start with three to four reps in one session and gradually work up to ten or more reps.
When using this method, the training effect occurs not only and not so much at the time of the exercise, but during the rest period. During the first minute of rest after exercise, oxygen consumption increases, and systolic blood volume also increases. If the next load is performed at a time when these indicators are high enough, then from repetition to repetition oxygen consumption will gradually increase.
It should be noted that it is advisable not to use the interval method at the initial stage of the development of general endurance, since it makes serious demands on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.
Circuit training method. Provides for the sequential execution of specially selected exercises that affect various muscle groups and functional systems in the form of continuous or interval work. In certain places of the hall or school playground (stadium), several “stations” are located in a circle (most often from 6 to 12). At each station, the student performs one of the exercises and goes through the circle one to three times.
For circular training, such exercises are selected that can be repeated a significant number of times (at least 20-30). Heart rate during exercise ranges from 140 to 175 beats / min, and in pauses (during rest) it decreases to 110 beats / min. The total duration of the circular exercise is 25-35 minutes.
Game method. Its essence lies in the fact that the motor activity of the students is organized on the basis of the content, conditions and rules of the game. It provides for the implementation of a variety of motor actions in the conditions of sports and outdoor games that require endurance. This method allows to ensure an increased interest of those involved in physical activity and less mental fatigue in comparison with exercises of a monotonous nature (for example, a long run at a uniform pace).
The load in the game can be increased by:
1) reducing the number of players while maintaining the size of the playing field
2) complication of game techniques and rules in which the players do not leave the field, but remain on the court.
The duration of the load with the play method should be at least 5-10 minutes (without rest).
Competitive method. It is a way of performing endurance exercises in the form of various competitions and competitive tasks that involve elements of competition. It stimulates the maximum mobilization of physical and related mental forces and abilities of those involved.
A prerequisite for the competitive method is the preparedness of the trainees to perform those exercises in which they must compete. The choice of methods is largely determined by the level of preparedness of the trainees. An important requirement for the methods used to develop endurance is to find the optimal combination of duration and intensity of the load.
4. Development of endurance.
Endurance depends on many factors, the main of which are the functional capabilities of various systems of the body and resistance to unfavorable shifts in the internal environment and the central nervous system that occur during prolonged intense work.
Endurance develops only with the use of exercises that exert physical stress on the human body, exceeding that to which he is accustomed. Gradually, the body adapts to the state of fatigue caused by the increased volume of work, its ability to recover more quickly increases.
There are good prerequisites for developing endurance. In healthy and sufficiently physically developed children, the blood flow rate and the minute volume of blood circulation are close to those in adults. Children have high plasticity of arteries, so the capacity of the vascular bed can increase without a significant increase in blood pressure. The duration of the cardiac cycle during exercise does not differ significantly from that in adults. With age and increasing fitness, aerobic and anaerobic performance increases, neurodynamic shifts, adaptive responses improve, and oxygen consumption per unit of work decreases.
However, it should be borne in mind that in children 11-14 years old, the development of the heart, both morphological and functional, has not yet been completed. The same applies to other organs. Therefore, exercise for the development of endurance must be used with extreme caution.
Of great importance in the development of endurance in schoolchildren is a clear gradation of physical activity. Gradation is a measured gradual transition from lower to higher levels and, conversely, in a certain quantitative and qualitative set of loads. For example, the loads used in running classes are divided into five categories according to intensity and duration zones.
Limit (maximum) loads. They can only be very short - no more than 15-20 s, as for example, when running at distances of up to 150 m. The maximum speed is determined by the results of running 20 m on the move. At 10-13 years old, for boys, it is 5.8-6.7 m / s, for girls - 5.7-6.1 m / s. When running 30 meters from the start, the speed is lower, since in this case only the speed gain occurs. When running 60 and 100 meters, the speed is higher than when running 30 meters, since part of the distance is covered with the already gained maximum speed. At distances of 80 and 120 m, the speed is about 90% of the maximum. The reaction to short-term, but intense loads in children is somewhat different than in adults. If in adults, the heart rate when running for short distances increases by only 30-40 beats / min, then in children it is much higher. For example, if at the start the pulse is 100-105 beats / min, then in the first 2 seconds it rises sharply - by about 20 beats. Then the increments are reduced to 10 hits every 4 seconds. After the end of the run, the heart rate continues to increase for another 4-6 s and reaches a maximum of 160-170 beats / min. The pulse recovers quickly: in the first 10 seconds it decreases by 10-15 beats, a minute before the initial starting level or even lower. The speed of recovery depends not only on the age and gender of students, but also on the individual ability of each student's body to adapt to stress.
Near-limiting (submaximal) loads. They are divided into two ranges. For schoolchildren in grades 5-7, the first includes running with a duration of 15-20 to 40-60 seconds. At relatively short distances, 100-200 m - for boys, the speed is 5.0-5.7 m / s, for longer distances - 300-400 m -4.4-5.4 m / s; for girls, respectively, 4.8-5.2 and 4.3-4.8 m / s. Distances for boys up to 400m, for girls up to 300m. In this case, the loads are 80-90% of the maximum. At a distance of 200 m, the heart rate for boys in grades 5-6 is about 210 beats / min, for boys in grade 6 -200; for girls, respectively 200, 195, 190. At a distance of 300 m for boys 210,205,200 beats / min, at a distance of 250 m for girls 205, 205, 200 beats / min. The pulse rate reaches the maximum level in boys at a distance of 350-400 m: in the 5th grade about 215 beats / min, in the 6th grade - 210, in the 7th grade - 205; for girls at a distance of 300-350 m on average, respectively, 210, 210, 208 beats / min. The intensity of the load is equal to 75-80% of the maximum. Thus, distances of 400-300 m should be considered the most difficult for boys and girls. With full competitive intensity, they can be run only in rare cases, for example, to determine the maximum heart rate in experimental studies. At the same time, one should not be afraid and avoid these distances. It just needs students to run 10-30% weaker than they could with full competitive intensity.
The second range of near-limit loads is 70-80% of the maximum, duration is up to 1.5-2 minutes, distances for boys are 300-350 m, for girls - 250-500 m, speed is 4.1-5.1 and 4.0, respectively -4.8 m / s. Due to the lower intensity of running, the pulse rate also decreases: for boys at a distance of 550 and (70% of intensity) in grade 5, it is approximately 210 beats / min, in grade 6 - 205, in grade 7 - 200; for girls at a distance of 500 m, respectively 205, 203, 200 beats / min. Loads of this intensity range also require a lot of stress on the body, so it is often undesirable to use them in a competitive environment.
High intensity loads make up approximately 55-70% of the maximum. For boys this is running for 2-7 minutes at distances of 600-1500 m at a speed of 3.5-4.0 m / s, for girls for 2-6 minutes at distances of 550-1200 m at a speed of 3.4-3 , 9 m / s. Heart rate from 180-185 bpm to about 200 bpm. The speed, approximately equal to 4 m / s, and the corresponding heart rate 200_ + 5 beats / min are called critical, because with such loads the absorption of oxygen reaches the highest possible level. No matter how much the oxygen demand increases in connection with a further increase in running speed, the body is no longer able to satisfy it, and the work continues at the same level of oxygen supply. Loads exceeding the specified level are called supercritical.
Moderate intensity loads - up to about 50-55% of the maximum. With such a run, the lungs and heart are able to almost completely provide the body with oxygen and there is still some reserve left. Consequently, the oxygen demand is less, thus the respiratory capacity of the organism. Oxygen demand is roughly proportional to running speed. At a speed of 2.9-3.2 m / s for boys, the duration of the run ranges from 7-8 to 25 minutes (distances from 2 to 5 km), for girls at a speed of 2.8-3.3 m / s, up to 22- 23 minutes (1.5-4 km). With a running duration of more than 6-8 minutes, the pulse reaches the level of 165_ + 10 beats / min. For the first 20 seconds after the start of running, the heart rate quickly rises by 30-40 beats / min; by the fourth minute, it is about 155-175 beats / min, and then stabilizes, slowly increasing with increasing fatigue (in 15-20 minutes, only by 10-12 beats / min). The pulse is quickly restored: within the first minute up to about 130 beats / min, and within three minutes - up to 120 beats / min.
Weak loads ... This is a slow run at the beginning and at the end of the lesson with an intensity of about 40-45% of the maximum, as well as light jogging in between intense loads. The pulse rate does not exceed 140_ + 10 beats / min.
Running endurance development begins with low-intensity, but prolonged aerobic exercise. From lesson to lesson, the volume of load is increased, lengthening the distance, and, accordingly, the running time. In the future, they pass from such extensive loads to intensive ones. This is done by gradual or stepwise contraction of distances while increasing speed.
The described method is used in classes with less prepared students. If the class or group is hardy enough to long-term low-intensity work, you can immediately start with a gradual increase in speed and distance, trying, however, to constantly maintain the heart rate not higher than 170-180 beats / min. Maintaining the heart rate at a relatively constant level is ensured by an increase in the fitness of the body of children.
Having created the base of general endurance, you can proceed to the special preparation of students for running certain distances. At this stage, it is recommended to include in the classes the running of different segments of the distance of the competition by a repeated method. At the same time, the load is more intense, in the mode of anaerobic-aerobic work, but the periods of load are short and separated by intervals of rest. With a regime of 30-60 seconds of running - 2 minutes of rest, by the third repetition, oxygen consumption reaches a certain maximum and relatively stabilizes. Rest should be of such duration that the heart rate drops at least 120-140 beats / min, otherwise it will take several extra tens of seconds to work. In contrast to steady running, which is perceived as monotonous by children with prolonged use, repeated running is more emotional.
The alternating run is more difficult, since, unlike the repetitive run, it consists of continuous movement. This is an acceleration run with moderate intensity.
In addition to developing general and special speed endurance, in the classroom, you should pay some attention to exercises to increase the so-called sprint endurance. This is a repetitive run at intervals of 30-40 m. The number of repetitions is set taking into account the preparedness of children, but always more than with the development of only speed.
Literature.
T and M FV, ed. By T. Yu. Krucevich, Kiev 2003, 422 p.
Athletics: textbook / ME Kobrinsky [and others]; under total. ed. M. E. Yushkevich, A. N. Konnikov. - M .: Tesey, 2005.-336 p.
Athletics: Textbook. manual for stud. higher. ped. study. institutions / A.I. Zhilkin, V.S. Kuzmin, E.V. Sidorchuk. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2003. - 464 p.
Sports medicine: textbook. manual / edited by V. A. Epifanova - M .: GEOTAR - Media, 2006.-336 p.
Kholodov Zh.K., Kuznetsov B.C. Theory and methodology of physical education and sports: Textbook. manual for stud. higher. study. institutions. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2000. - 480 p.
An effective means of developing special endurance (speed, strength, coordination, etc.) are specially preparatory exercises, i.e. exercise in your sport; special exercises performed in difficult, complicated, lightweight and normal conditions, as close as possible to competitive ones in form, structure and characteristics of the impact on the functional systems of the body, specific competitive exercises and general preparatory means.
Most types of special endurance are largely determined by the level of development of the anaerobic capabilities of the body, for which they use any exercises that include the functioning of a large muscle group and allow you to perform work with extreme and near-limit intensity.
To increase the anaerobic capacity of the body, the following exercises are used:
- 1. Exercises, mainly contributing to the increase of alactic anaerobic abilities. Duration of work 10-15 s, maximum intensity. The exercises are used in repetitive execution mode, in series;
- 2. Exercises allowing to simultaneously improve the alactate and lactate anaerobic abilities. Duration of work 15-30 s, intensity 90-100% of the maximum available;
- 3. Exercises to improve lactate anaerobic capacity. Duration of work 30-60 s, intensity 85-90% of the maximum available.
- 4. Exercises to simultaneously improve lactate anaerobic and aerobic capabilities. The duration of the work is 1-5 minutes, the intensity is 85-90% of the maximum available.
When developing endurance, it should be remembered that the same exercise, mainly of a cyclical nature, can be performed with different intensities. Accordingly, the maximum execution time will vary from a few seconds to several hours. The mechanisms of fatigue (and, consequently, endurance) in these cases will be different, then the requirements for the body will be significantly different. This means that when dosing the load to improve endurance with uniform muscular work, one should proceed from the knowledge of the zones of time intervals for normalizing speed loads when determining the intensity of motor activity, and in this regard, zones of relative power (intensity) of physical load are distinguished. Which were first identified by V.S. Farfel. Areas of maximum power, submaximal power, high power and moderate power.
Maximum power zone. The maximum duration of work does not exceed 15-20 seconds, which is equal to running segments of 20-50 m at maximum speed and work of this nature requires certain energy costs - energy consumption per 1 s is within 4 calories. Heart rate can reach 190 beats / min or more, which determines the anaerobic nature of oxidative processes. And from this it follows that neuromuscular activity proceeds in almost oxygen-free conditions (oxygen consumption during operation is insignificant and in relation to oxygen demand is below 1/10, with a large oxygen debt of up to 8 liters). And with such work, the pulse ceases to be an informative indicator of dosing loads. The indices of the blood reaction and its composition (the content of lactic acid - lactate) are of great importance here. The concentration of lactate in the blood is small, less than 4.0 mmol / l. As a rule, exercises are used in repetitive execution mode, in series. Due to the short duration of this work, the main energy reserve is anaerobic processes (the reserve of phosphagens - KrF (especially it, you need to have large reserves, since its splitting is a fast pathway of ATP resynthesis) and ATP, anaerobic glycolysis (energy released during anaerobic breakdown of glucose) , the rate of ATP resynthesis), and the functional reserve is the ability of nerve centers to maintain a high rate of activity.
The most intensive development of endurance in this power zone occurs in the middle school age (14-16 years for boys and 13-14 years for girls).
Rest intervals between running exercises can be 2-3 minutes, and between series - 4-6 minutes. Rest periods are filled with muscle relaxation exercises, walking alternating with breathing exercises, etc. Active rest accelerates the recovery of the body for subsequent work. The choice of the number of running exercises in the series and the number of series are determined by the state of health, i.e. functional state. Here the teacher can focus on two main indicators: heart rate and running speed. In schoolchildren, repeated performance of the load can be offered at a heart rate of 115-120 beats / min and the exercise can be stopped when the running speed decreases to an average of 70-75% of the maximum.
Sub-maximum power zone. The maximum duration of work, manifested without a decrease in power from 20 seconds to 5 minutes, which is equal to running over medium distances (400 m, 800 m, 1000 m, 1500 m) and work of this nature presents certain energy costs - the energy consumption for 1 s is within 0.6-4 calories. Exercise power should not exceed 85-95% of the maximum. The heart rate is in the zone of 180-190 beats / min, which determines the anaerobic-aerobic nature of oxidative processes. Such work is characterized by the capabilities of the anaerobic-glycolytic mechanism of energy supply and the endurance of the nerve centers for intensive work in conditions of lack of oxygen, but the leading physiological system in this zone is the cardio-respiratory system. The performance of the work is characterized by an increase in oxygen debt, an excess of oxygen demand over its actual consumption (the ratio of oxygen consumption to oxygen demand is 1/3 to the value of oxygen debt up to 18 liters), and during this work, the concentration of lactate in the blood is maximum 8.0-15 mmol / l.
Sensitive periods for the development of endurance in this power zone are considered to be the age of 10-11 years and 15-17 years for boys, and 9-10 years and 13-14 years for girls.
The main means of developing endurance in the submaximal zone are exercises of a cyclic and acyclic nature (for example, running, throwing). Exercises can be performed with additional weights, but with correction of the duration and number of repetitions.
The leading development method is strictly regulated exercises that allow you to accurately set the magnitude and volume of the load. Exercises can be performed repeatedly or continuously in series and include exercises with different biomechanical structures. Rest intervals vary in length depending on the approach used. Typically, they can be 3 to 6 minutes. Repeated performance of an exercise or a series of exercises should begin at a heart rate of 110-120 beats / min. Between repetitions of loads, breathing exercises, muscle relaxation exercises, exercises to develop mobility in the joints are used.
It is advisable to develop endurance in the zone of submaximal loads after exercises for the development of coordination of movements, training in motor actions, when the body is in the phase of initial fatigue. This allows you to significantly reduce the time of exposure to the body by exercises in the submaximal zone and not to use warm-ups. In this case, the duration of the exercises, their number, intervals of rest in terms of duration and content between them should be correlated with the nature of the previous work.
High power area. The duration of work is on average 3-5 to 10-30 minutes. The amount of loads is determined by the intensity range from 60-65% to 70-75% of the maximum (running, swimming, skiing, etc.). The heart rate is in the zone of 160-180 beats / min, which determines the aerobic-anaerobic nature of oxidative processes. The performance of work is characterized by an increase in oxygen debt, an excess of oxygen demand over its actual consumption (the ratio of oxygen consumption to oxygen demand (5/6), to the value of oxygen debt (up to 12 liters)) and with such work, the concentration of lactate in the blood is high 4.1- 8.0 mmol / L. Work is performed with overcoming long distances (3000 m, 5000 m, 10000 m) and work of this nature presents certain energy costs - the energy consumption per 1 s is within 0.4-0.5 calories. In such work, physiological reserves are generally the same as in submaximal work and are characterized by the maximum capabilities of the mechanisms of aerobic energy supply (due to the oxidation reaction of carbohydrate (glucose)), and, consequently, by the maximum capabilities (near-limiting) of the respiratory and circulatory systems, optimal blood redistribution, water reserves and mechanisms of physical thermoregulation. If, with loads of maximum and submaximal power, the restoration of the energy potential of the muscles occurs mainly during the recovery period, then with loads of high power, it is mainly during work. At the same time, the work of this power activates to a large extent anaerobic processes, primarily anaerobic-glycolytic, as well as fat metabolism.
Sensitive periods for the development of endurance in this power zone are age in boys - from 8 to 11 years and from 15 to 17 years, in girls - from 9 to 12 years and from 13 to 14 years.
In terms of its effect, exercise should cause a significant increase in heart rate and pulmonary ventilation. Depending on the age, the heart rate can reach 180-200 beats / min, and the minute respiration volume is 40-80 l / min at a respiration rate of 45-60 cycles / min.
The development of endurance is carried out by methods of strictly regulated exercise and play. The latter allows, due to increased emotionality, to achieve a greater amount of work. The exercises can be performed repeatedly with a duration of 3-5 minutes and a rest interval of up to 6-8 minutes. Repeated execution is carried out when the heart rate is up to 110-115 beats / min and the minute volume of respiration is up to 110-120% of the initial value. At the same time, the repeated mode of performing loads is often pedagogically unjustified in terms of the time spent. Therefore, endurance in the zone of high loads is developed, as a rule, at the end of the main part of the lesson against the background of the initial fatigue of the body. This allows you to reduce the duration of exercises to 1.5-2 minutes and shorten the intervals of rest, including breathing exercises with walking or low-intensity jogging. The alternation of loads of different zones is used in athletics classes, in particular, in cross training. During ski training, alternation of loads is used in the zone of high and moderate intensity.
Moderate power zone. The duration of work is on average from 30-40 minutes to 1.5 hours or more, with the value of intensity loads from 60-65% of the maximum, which corresponds to prolonged work in cyclic exercises (for example, long walking, cross-country running, ski marches). This power of work causes heart rate activation in the range from 130-140 to 160-170 beats / min, respectively, and pulmonary ventilation fluctuates in large ranges from 12-14 to 40-45 l / min, which determines the aerobic nature of oxidative processes. The work is characterized by the optimal interaction of the respiratory and circulatory systems, their mutual consistency with the structure of the motor action. And because of this, it has a relative equality between the oxygen demand (small up to 4 liters) and its actual consumption (1/1), between the rate of formation of decay products (the level of lactic acid in the blood rises at the beginning of work, then it does not change 2.5- 4.0 mmol / l) and the speed of their oxidative elimination. The work is performed with overcoming long and super long distances (20 km, 30 km, 42 km 195 m (marathon), race walking for 20 km, 50 km, 100 km) and work of this nature requires certain energy costs - energy consumption in 1 s is within 0.35-0.3 calories. Work is provided by aerobic processes with a slight activation of anaerobic processes, limits of endurance of the central nervous system, reserves of glycogen and glucose (zone of carbohydrate respiration), but when glucose is consumed, energy supply results from oxidation of fats (zone of fat respiration) and gluconeogenesis processes, which intensify intensively under stress. Important conditions for the long-term provision of such work include the reserves of water and salts, and the efficiency of physical thermoregulation processes.
In this power zone, endurance is effectively developed throughout school age. At the same time, the greatest results can be achieved in boys aged 8-11 and 14-16 years. In girls, the age periods of intensive development of endurance in the temperate zone are less clearly traced, however, the ages of 8-9 years, 11-12 years and 14-15 years can be considered the most promising for pedagogical influence. endurance endurance athlete hardening
In junior schoolchildren, the values \u200b\u200bof the parameters of functional activity are somewhat higher than in senior schoolchildren, and they are also higher in girls than in boys.
One of the features of the development of this ability is the need for long-term performance of the exercise, which allows to ensure the necessary coordination in the activity of organs and structures of the body, to switch to more efficient energy sources, to adapt to monotonous work. Proceeding from this, the use of motor actions with low intensity in the phase of initial or compensated fatigue is not always pedagogically justified. Therefore, at physical education lessons, it is advisable to teach running, skiing with the required speed of movement. And then in the form of homework to increase the amount of work, increase the duration of its implementation.
The following methods are used to develop special endurance:
- 1. Methods of continuous exercise (uniform and variable);
- 2. Methods of interval discontinuous exercise (interval and repetitive);
- 3. Competitive and play methods.
Development of speed endurance
It is customary to talk about speed endurance in relation to exercises of a cyclical nature (running, walking, swimming, rowing, skiing, cycling, etc.). Any of them can be done at different speeds. The more enduring will be the one who can maintain a given speed of movement longer than another. Naturally, depending on the speed of movement, the duration of the exercise will be different, the higher it is, the shorter the duration of work will be, and vice versa.
Endurance is manifested only when there are phenomena of fatigue. It has been proven that the better the speed endurance is developed, the later, during movement at a distance, the phenomena of fatigue begin to appear and, as a consequence, the speed decreases. Consequently, speed endurance in one or another power zone develops only when a person in the process of training reaches the necessary degrees of fatigue - the body in this case, as it were, responds to such phenomena by increasing the level of endurance development.
Time characteristics of different zones of relative power in cyclic exercises in people of different ages. Knowledge of the time intervals of the zones of relative power at different ages is of great practical importance. These data serve as a guideline for the rationing of speed loads in the classroom.
The main way to improve speed endurance in each power zone is to use a slightly more intense work in the classroom compared to that which is typical for it in different age groups. Such work represents movement at a speed exceeding the competitive speed at distances falling into the corresponding zone. Of course, the distance will be shorter than the competition, so the impact on the body is not enough. To achieve the required nature of response reactions, their size and orientation during the development of endurance, training segments in one lesson are overcome several times.
In the process of training, the repetitive (interval) method is mainly used, which provides for the implementation of exercises with an intensity of 90-95% of the maximum and a duration of 10-20 seconds. The number of repetitions of the exercise in each series is 3-4. The number of series for those who do not have sports categories is 2-3, for well-trained people - 4-6. Often they use the passage of a competitive distance with maximum intensity. In order to increase the safety margin, they practice passing a longer distance than the competitive one, but again with maximum intensity.
The main criterion for the development of speed endurance is the time during which a given speed or pace of movements is maintained.
Speed \u200b\u200bendurance in the work of submaximal power in people of different ages and fitness is manifested mainly in exercises with a maximum duration of at least 50 s and no more than 4-5 minutes.
The main means of developing high-speed endurance when working in the submaximal power zone is overcoming training segments of various lengths at a speed exceeding the competitive one.
Speed \u200b\u200bendurance in the zone of submaximal loads is mainly provided due to the anaerobic-glycolytic mechanism of energy supply (i.e., from the amount of glycogen that breaks down to lactic acid) and often aerobic, therefore we can say that the work is performed in an aerobic-anaerobic mode.
Speed \u200b\u200bendurance in high-power work is manifested in exercises, the duration of which can reach about 2-10 minutes or more. The boundaries of the time range within this zone are not the same for people of different ages.
The main means of developing endurance is movement at training distances at a speed close to critical, equal to it or slightly exceeding it. In terms of its effect, such work should cause maximum oxygen consumption in the body and allow it to be kept at a high level for a longer time. The process of providing the working muscles with energy is mixed, aerobic-anaerobic with a predominance of the aerobic component.
For the development of endurance in a given power zone, alternating, repetitive and interval methods are mainly used. The intensity of movement in the variable method can be applied from moderate to competitive. Variable training is carried out either according to the "fartlek" type, when distances of different lengths are overcome at different speeds, or with a strict alternation of equal segments of the distance, run alternately at high and low speeds.
With the growth of readiness for the development of endurance, the interval method is used, characterized by a large number of repetitions of the exercise on long segments at a speed lower than the competitive one and relatively short rest pauses.
Speed \u200b\u200bendurance to work of moderate power is typical for exercises in which the maximum duration of competitive activity is from 9 to 10 minutes and up to 1-1.5 hours and more.
The basis of high-speed endurance at long and ultra-long distances, first of all, is the capacity of the aerobic mechanism of energy production, i.e. stores of glycogen in muscles and liver, fatty acids. Its informative indicators are the level of the threshold of anaerobic metabolism (IIANO) in relation to the maximum oxygen consumption (MOC) and the speed of movement at the level of TANM.
TANM corresponds to such an intensity of work, at which oxygen is clearly not enough for complete energy supply, the processes of anoxic (anaerobic) energy production are sharply increased due to the breakdown of energy-rich substances (creatine phosphate and muscle glycogen), and the accumulation of lactic acid. An increase in the level of the threshold of anaerobic metabolism allows a runner, rower, skier, etc. to cover most of the distance in aerobic conditions and use anaerobic reserves during the finishing acceleration.
The main means of developing high-speed endurance at long and super-long distances are: running, rowing, swimming, cycling and other cyclic exercises performed at subcritical speed. Improving endurance is accomplished through continuous and discontinuous exercise techniques. When using the uniform method, exercises are performed at a relatively constant speed, which is 75-80% of the critical speed for 20 minutes or more. This mode of operation creates optimal conditions for improving the functions of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems of the body. To increase endurance through the variable method, it is important to maintain the optimal level of movement speed and not overestimate it, so as not to unnecessarily activate anaerobic processes. It should vary in the range of 60-80% of the critical value.
For the development of the ability to maintain the speed of movement at the competitive level for a long time, it is useful to include control passes of the shortened distance in the classes in comparison with the competitive one. This is usually done in the order of control estimates. Then the duration of movement at the speed required in the competition is gradually increased until the chosen distance is almost completely covered.
Strength endurance development
Strength endurance, i.e. the ability to exercise optimal muscle effort for a long time is one of the most significant physical abilities. In this case, motor activity can be acyclic, cyclic and mixed. The success of professional, household, military and sports motor activity largely depends on the level of its development.
One of the criteria by which one can judge the development of strength endurance is the number of repetitions of the control exercise performed "to failure" with weights - 30-75% of the maximum.
Power endurance has various forms of manifestation, depending on the nature of the performed motor action.
Depending on the mode of muscle tension, dynamic and static strength endurance is distinguished.
Dynamic strength endurance is typical for exercises with repetitive and significant muscle tension at a relatively low speed of movement, as well as for exercises of a cyclical or acyclic nature, where "fast" strength is needed. Exercises of a power dynamic nature can be performed with different amounts of burden (intensity) and the number of possible repetitions (volume).
Indicators of power dynamic endurance largely depend on the level of development of maximum strength ("strength reserve").
For the development of strength dynamic endurance, a variety of exercises with weights are mainly used, performed by the method of repeated efforts with repeated overcoming of unsatisfactory resistance until significant fatigue or "to failure", as well as by the method of circular training.
Static strength endurance is typical for activities associated with prolonged retention of extreme and moderate stresses, which are necessary mainly to maintain a certain posture.
For the development of static strength endurance, various isometric exercises are used, the implementation of which should be limited to the stage of compensatory fatigue, i.e. static loads 82-86% of the maximum ("to failure"). With their help, you can influence almost any muscle group. At the same time, it is very important that the starting position and articular angles are such that exactly those muscle groups are included in the work, the endurance of which is needed to increase the result in this exercise.
Complexes of isometric exercises usually include no more than 6-9 exercises. The duration of static muscle tension should last more than 12-20 s.
There is no direct relationship between maximum muscle strength and static endurance. With an increase in maximum strength, for example, of the back muscles, their static endurance, as a rule, does not change significantly.
With age, the strength endurance to static efforts is constantly increasing. The greatest increase in endurance to static effort is observed in the period from 13 to 16 years, i.e. during puberty: for girls, it is on average 32%, for boys - 29%.
Static exercises are monotonous, require significant mental stress, are uninteresting and quickly lead to fatigue. Therefore, you should not get carried away with them when conducting classes. Performing many isometric strength exercises is associated with great straining of the whole organism. Therefore, it is necessary to use them at the age of 7-14 years carefully, in small volumes, to avoid prolonged limiting static stresses and adhere to the following methodological provisions:
Static endurance increases faster when isometric stresses are performed in combination with dynamic muscle work that enhances blood circulation (light jogging, various general exercises, etc.);
In the classroom, additional weights should not be used or they should be small (1-3 kg);
Static exercises must be alternated with exercises for stretching the muscles and their arbitrary relaxation;
The greater the static load, the longer the rest should be;
Static exercises in a lesson should usually be done at the end of the main part of the lesson, but on the condition that the final part is longer and more dynamic.
The repetitive method (in different versions) plays the main role in the development of static endurance.
Coordination endurance - it manifests itself mainly in motor activity, characterized by a variety of complex technical and tactical actions (gymnastics, sports games, figure skating, etc.).
The methodological aspects of increasing coordination endurance are quite diverse. For example, they practice lengthening the combination, shorten the rest intervals, repeat the combinations without resting between them.
To develop endurance in game types and martial arts, taking into account the characteristics of motor activity inherent in these types, the duration of the main exercises (periods, rounds, fights) is increased, the intensity is increased, and the rest intervals are reduced.
Endurance is a complex of the most important physical abilities of a person, which determine his ability to fight in the process of competitive and training activities with the onset of fatigue, to perform work of a given duration without reducing its effectiveness, to overcome distances of standard length in the shortest time, to maintain high performance of the body in a long training session, to fight with unfavorable environmental factors affecting a person in the process of life and sports activity.
Endurance as a complex physical quality includes the performance of energy supply systems, economization in the body's work, the ability to maintain the necessary power and speed characteristics of a motor act, the body's resistance to the action of unfavorable environmental factors, specific personality and psychological characteristics of an athlete.
Despite the complex of general factors that determine a person's endurance, this physical quality is always specific to a particular athletics discipline and is determined by the contribution of each component and their relationship to each other. With an increase in the duration of a competitive exercise, the proportion of each of these components changes, however, the most important components of an athlete's endurance are the performance of energy supply systems and the efficiency of the body, including the technique of movements.
Maintaining a high specific working capacity in the process of competitive and training activity is associated with overcoming the growing fatigue. Therefore, the endurance of an athlete is characterized as the ability to withstand the coming fatigue (V.S.Farfel).
In connection with specific specific manifestations of endurance in various types, having different duration and structure of motor activity, different terms are used in practice: power, speed, stayer, marathon, static, coordination endurance. All of these terms characterize certain types of an athlete's special endurance.
therefore special endurance is the ability to resist fatigue in conditions of specific competitive activity with maximum mobilization of functional capabilities to achieve a result in the chosen sport. However, in order to achieve high working capacity, especially in conditions of prolonged training activity, with the functioning of most muscle groups, manifested in the mode of aerobic energy supply, athletes must have the so-called general endurance, which should be understood as a set of functional properties of the body, which constitute the nonspecific basis for the manifestation of endurance in various activities... The main components of general endurance will be the capabilities of the aerobic energy supply system, functional and biomechanical economization.
To improve general endurance, cyclic exercises are used, performed in an aerobic mode of energy supply, lasting at least 15-20 minutes, hiking, walking in the mountains, sports games, as well as long training sessions with low intensity.
Efficiency of energy supply of workassociated with the use of three sources: aerobic, anaerobic glycolytic and anaerobic alactate (Table 10), and is characterized by power, i.e. the speed of energy release, and capacity,those. the volume of acceptable substrate funds (fats, carbohydrates, glycogen, ATP, creatine phosphate) and the allowable volume of metabolic changes in the body (NI Volkov, 1976).
The most important component of energy supply in all sports are aerobic capabilitiesorganism, which provide the necessary share of energy in the process of work and contribute to the rapid restoration of the organism's working capacity after a load of any duration and power, ensuring the fastest removal of metabolic products.
One of the main criteria for the level of aerobic capacity of an athlete's body is the indicator of maximum oxygen consumption (MOC).
Table 10
Characteristics of energy processes
The same important criterion for the efficiency of aerobic processes is considered the anaerobic threshold (AN), which is an indicator of the balance of activity: oxygen transport and oxygen-utilizing (muscular) systems. According to the concentration of lactate in the blood, ANP is equal to the conventional indicator of 4 mmol / l, and according to pulmonary ventilation and heart rate, it is a point on the graph reflecting a nonlinear change in these indicators, i.e. fracture straight between V E and running speed or heart rate and running speed (fig. 39).
Figure: 39. Determination of indicators of running speed (work power) according to ANP (according to heart rate, pulmonary ventilation and lactate)
Anaerobic alactate energy sources play a decisive role in maintaining performance in exercises of maximum intensity with a duration of up to 15-20 seconds.
The criterion for the alactate capabilities of the body is the corresponding fraction of oxygen debt (2.5-5 liters) and the concentration of creatine in the blood.
Anaerobic-lactacid sources are considered to be the main ones in the process of energy supply of work, which lasts from 20 s to 5-6 minutes.
The main criterion for anaerobic (glycolytic) performance is the concentration of lactate in the blood from 5 to 25 mmol / l. Additional criteria can be the values \u200b\u200bof oxygen debt (up to 20 liters) and its lactate fraction, shifts in the acid-base balance in the blood and, in particular, the concentration of hydrogen ions PH and excess buffer bases BE (respectively, up to 6.9 and - 0, 24 meq).
Functional and biomechanical economics Are the most important components of an athlete's endurance. Energy resources (substrates) in the body are almost always limited either due to their small volume, or due to factors that complicate their consumption, so the body seeks to do the work at the expense of a minimum of energy consumption. At the same time, the higher the readiness of the athletes, the higher the efficiency of the work they perform.
Economization has two sides: mechanical, or biomechanical, depending on the level of possession of technique or rational tactics of competitive activity; physiological and biochemical, or functional, which is determined by what proportion of the work is performed due to the energy of the aerobic oxidative system without the accumulation of lactic acid.
Body resistance, or functional stability.In the process of intense training, high-class athletes face a number of unfavorable changes in the body under the influence of external and internal environmental factors.
These shifts reduce performance and are associated with developing fatigue. Therefore, an athlete must have both general and specific resistance, which will provide him with a higher level of special endurance.
Personal and psychological component of endurancedetermines the combination of necessary personal and psychological qualities associated with mental attitude, endurance and, most importantly, the ability to “endure” unfavorable changes in the internal environment of the body.
Based on the above factors of the structure of special endurance in athletes specializing in different types, we can talk about the methodological directions in the development of this motor quality.
The methodology for improving special endurance in endurance running and race walking.The strategic direction of training the specific endurance of athletes who specialized in these types is the construction of a special foundation of preparedness (N.G. Ozolin, 1970). It takes many years to create the required level, adequate to the planned results, and in the macrocycle - several months. It takes only a few weeks for its implementation in sports results, which determines the ratio of partial volumes of training loads.
The functional system, which characterizes a high level of the special foundation of readiness, can be characterized by the following indicators: high level of VO2 max, high movement speed and oxygen consumption at the level of ANP within 85-95% of VO2 max, high functional and biomechanical economization, effective sports technique, the required level of strength muscles providing motor act, and its utilization in competitive activity.
The training programs aimed at creating a special foundation are based on training loads at the level of the anaerobic threshold (3-5 mmol / l) more than 50% of the total annual volume and exercises for strength endurance, which are an adequate stimulus for the development of working hypertrophy of the muscles performing the main work in competitive exercises.
All specific remedies are performed by the methods of continuous exercise (uniform and alternating) and interval intermittent exercise (interval and repetitive).
Strength exercises used in training athletes in running and walking should be considered as a means of intensifying the work of the muscular system in a specific motor mode.
To develop strength endurance, use:
- exercises with weights on special simulators in a dynamic mode;
- jumping exercises;
- basic competitive exercises performed in difficult conditions (with weights, braking, uphill movement).
Improvement of sportsmen's special endurance is associated with the use of sufficiently high total volumes of training loads, as well as the choice of optimal intensity, or, in other words, partial volumes of the most intensive means. In a multi-year cycle, the total volume of the load and its intensity increase gradually and in parallel. The larger the volume training, the higher the volume of the most intense means. The more intensive and strenuous the work performed, the more it requires restorative means in the form of a low-intensity load, characterized by an aerobic regime of energy supply. Therefore, the intensification of the training process in a long-term cycle should take place without reducing the total volumes of training loads achieved in previous years.
One of the directions in the intensification of the training process is to increase the private volumes and speed of running and walking in separate zones of intensity.
An increase in the volume of funds performed in the mode of alactate energy supply has a beneficial effect on increasing the aerobic capacity of an athlete. However, an increase in their volume is limited by the state of the musculoskeletal system.
The increase in loads in the zone of anaerobic glycolytic energy supply in absolute terms, despite the increase in sports results, in retrospect increases slightly.
The volume of loads in a mixed power supply area is usually proportional to the increase in the total volume.
The primary increase in the functional state, the basis of which is the high speed of the anaerobic threshold, is the main thing in improving the special endurance in running and walking, i.e. increasing training speeds.
The method of improving special endurance in speed-strength types of athletics.The development of special endurance in sprint exercises in jumping and throwing consists in fostering the ability to maintain and increase the power of efforts during the competition, discretely lasting for several hours, while maintaining the high technique of performing the exercise.
This is due to savings in energy consumption. So, for highly qualified athletes, when performing specific exercises, energy consumption is about 20% less than for dischargers (A.N. Vorobiev).
The special endurance of sprinters, jumpers and throwers comes down not only to maintaining the running speed and power of the take off or throw, but also to the stability of the technique throughout the competition. This requires the use of intense training funds in significant amounts. From an energy point of view, the special endurance of sprinters in the entire range of distances is due to the power and capacity of anaerobic sources of energy supply.
The increase in anaerobic alactate capabilities is carried out by increasing the amount of ATP and CrF in the muscles, which provide a motor act. This occurs under the influence of repetitive work (lasting from 5 to 10 s), performed at maximum speed with sufficient rest intervals for recovery.
An increase in the capabilities of the alactate mechanism of energy supply in sprinters and jumpers, which ensures the maintenance of a high running speed, is associated with overcoming segments at a speed of 90-100% of the maximum, lasting from 10 to 20 seconds in an interval mode with rest pauses, ensuring the body's recovery.
Improvement of glycolytic anaerobic capabilities is associated with the use of segments lasting 20-90 s with an intensity of 85-95% of the maximum speed on the used segment both with shortened rest intervals and providing the necessary recovery in the rest pause (heart rate up to 120-130 bpm ).
In order to improve the aerobic abilities of athletes specializing in sprinting, jumping and throwing, exercises of longer duration are used, performed in a continuous mode for 10 or more minutes. The volume of these exercises for the representatives of the long sprint should be determined in connection with the dynamics of the indices of the anaerobic threshold.
Methods for improving endurance in all-around.In these types of athletics, special endurance is in many ways similar to endurance in sprinting, jumping, and throwing.
The approach to improving special endurance in running 800 m for women and 1500 m for men is strictly individualized and associated with an emphasis on the implementation of genetically most highly developed abilities (energy supply systems for work).
Stability of technical skills in conditions of unfavorable factors of the external and internal environment (hypoxia, fatigue, weather, etc.) requires a certain development of the system of aerobic energy supply, the level of which also provides recovery processes after a series of exercises and in the intervals between competitive types and days. A high level of technical skill largely depends on the tolerance of unfavorable changes in the internal environment of the body and the high capacity of alactate mechanisms of energy supply.
The most important factor in increasing the special endurance of all-round athletes is the fight against the coming sensory and emotional fatigue, which requires a wider amount of means of mental relief.
The main means of improving general and special endurance are an increased volume of specific (competitive) exercises performed in training sessions, the total amount of time spent on training tasks, strength endurance exercises performed in the competitive activity mode, as well as prolonged cyclic exercises (walks, cross-country , swimming), used on training days and weeks, not loaded with a large volume of specific speed-strength exercises.
2.12. Development of flexibility and coordination
The morphological and functional ability of the locomotor apparatus is called flexibility, which allows performing movements with a certain amplitude. Flexibility is characterized by mobility in the joints, the ability to perform movements with a large amplitude and is determined by the elasticity and elasticity of the ligaments and muscles.
From the point of view of the morphological and functional properties of the musculoskeletal system, the following forms of flexibility are distinguished: active, passive, mixed. A distinction is also made between general and special flexibility.
Develop flexibility through exercises with an increased range of motion (stretching exercises for muscles and ligaments). Such exercises are classified not only by active, passive or mixed form of performance, but also by focus, as well as by the nature of muscle work. Therefore, there are dynamic, static and mixed somatodynamic stretching exercises.
The manifestation of flexibility depends on many factors: on the structure of the joints, the elastic properties of ligaments and muscles, as well as on the nervous regulation of muscle tone, on the general functional state of the body, on external conditions, time of day, temperature of muscles and environment, degree of fatigue.
Flexibility also depends on age. In general, the mobility of large parts of the body increases up to 13-14 years and, as a rule, stabilizes by 16-17 years, and then has a steady tendency to decrease. If you do not perform stretching exercises until the age of 13-14, then flexibility can begin to decline already in adolescence. Its significant deterioration is noted in people over 50 years old and sharp - after 60 years.
Therefore, the only way to preserve it is to constantly train the mobility of each joint. Flexibility exercises in one lesson are performed 2-3 times. In the preparatory part of the lesson, flexibility exercises are included in a special warm-up, after a good warm-up of the body in a general warm-up - 6-8 exercises to prepare the muscular-articular joints of the arms, trunk, legs, involved, first of all, in the main part of the lesson. Each exercise is performed 10-15 times in sequence: for the arms, torso and legs.
In the main part of the lesson (after strength exercises), flexibility exercises (8-10 exercises) are performed in series (4-5), alternating with work of the main orientation, for example, with strength exercises. If the development of flexibility is one of the main tasks of the lesson, then stretching exercises are separated into a separate load block, which is performed in the second half of the main part of the lesson. Relaxation exercises should be done between series. A set of exercises can consist of 10-12 exercises of a passive (with the help of a partner, gymnastic wall, etc.) or active (performed with the help of one's own muscular efforts) character.
In the final part, stretching exercises (8-10 exercises) are combined with relaxation exercises and self-massage.
Particular attention should be paid to stretching the muscles when performing strength exercises, given their possible negative effect on flexibility.
In the process of performing any motor activity by a person, they deal not with individual muscle contractions, but with an integral living organism, which in the aspect of motor manifestations is a motor functional system. Coordinates the motor functional system of the cerebral hemispheres. The effectiveness of the motor functional system is largely determined by the age maturation of the motor and vestibular analyzers.
Thus, muscles are involved in direct processes associated with the implementation of coordination of movements, and the nervous system controls these processes based on information from various senses and individual experience.
The connection between the central nervous system and the effector organs is bilateral. The feedback mechanism plays a major role in the formation and improvement of motor coordination. Through this mechanism, the central nervous system receives continuous feedback from the muscles and the result of perfect movement. Feedback contributes to the transformation of the motor system into a controlled one.
Therefore, the effectiveness of teaching basic movements, i.e. the formation of the necessary motor skills and abilities, first of all, provide motor-coordinating abilities, which simultaneously have a significant impact on the mental development of the child. Therefore, it is impossible to bring up a harmoniously developed, healthy personality without solving the problem of the development of motor-coordinating abilities even in preschool age.
ON. Bernstein (1991), defining the coordination of movements as overcoming the excessive degrees of freedom of a moving organ, indicates its transformation into a controlled system. He substantiated the position of the multifunctional and hierarchical structure of psychomotor activity of a person and identified five levels of building movements from various parts of the nervous system: the level of tone (actions poor in higher automatisms - looking, feeling, comparing and selecting objects, etc.); level of muscular-articular linkages (level of synergies); lower sublevel of space; the upper sublevel of space (small and precise finger movements - threading a needle, sharpening a pencil, etc.); the level of actions (the level of objective actions, semantic chains).
This approach made it possible for N.A. Bernstein to assert that different sides, properties of movement are controlled by different nervous structures, in their own specific way and simultaneously.
Since the 30s, experts from different countries have proven the illegality of reducing dexterity to only a few abilities. As a result, in today's literature, from 2-3 "general" to 5-7-11 are called - 20 or more special and specifically manifested coordination abilities: coordination of the activity of large muscle groups of the whole body, general balance, balance with and without visual control, balance on the subject, the balancing of objects, the speed of restructuring of motor activity. The ability related to the coordination area also includes the ability for spatial orientation, fine motor skills, the ability to differentiate, reproduce, measure and evaluate spatial, power and temporal parameters of movements, rhythm, vestibular stability, the ability to voluntarily relax muscles, etc.
IN AND. Lyakh (1995), giving a definition of coordination abilities, defines them as the ability of an individual to determine his readiness for optimal control and regulation of motor action. The author identifies the following types of coordination abilities: "special" (a person's capabilities that determine his readiness for optimal control and regulation of motor actions similar in origin and meaning), "specific" (the individual's capabilities, which determine his readiness for optimal control and regulation of individual specific tasks " for coordination "-" for balance "," rhythm "," orientation in space "," response "," restructuring of motor activity "," coordination "," differentiation of movement parameters "," preservation of statokinetic stability ", etc.) and" general ”(potential and realized capabilities of a person, which determine his readiness for optimal control and regulation of motor actions, different in origin and meaning).
It is now known that each of the above coordination abilities is not homogeneous, but has a complex structure. VI Lyakh gives the following interpretation: the ability to orientate is the ability of the individual to accurately determine and timely change the position of the body and to carry out movements in the desired direction; the ability to differentiate the parameters of movements determines the high accuracy and efficiency of spatial (positions of angles in the joints), power (state of tension in working muscles) and temporal (high sense of microintervals of time) parameters of movements; the ability to react allows you to quickly and accurately perform an entire short-term movement to a known or unknown signal in advance with the whole body or its part (arm, leg, trunk); the ability to rebuild motor actions is the speed of transformation of the developed forms of movements or switching from one motor actions to others in accordance with changing conditions; the ability to coordinate - the connection, subordination of individual movements and actions into integral motor combinations; the ability to balance - maintaining the stability of the posture (balance) in certain static positions of the body (in stands), in the course of performing movements (in walking, while performing acrobatic exercises, in the fight with a partner); the ability to rhythm - the ability to accurately reproduce a given rhythm of a motor action or to adequately vary it in connection with changed conditions; vestibular (statokinetic) stability - the ability to accurately and stably perform motor actions in conditions of vestibular stimuli (somersaults, throws, turns, etc.); voluntary muscle relaxation - the ability to optimally coordinate the relaxation and contraction of specific muscles at the right time.
The results of scientific research allow us to consider correctness, speed, rationality and resourcefulness with their qualitative and quantitative characteristics as the main criteria for assessing coordination abilities. In this regard, a child can show his coordinating abilities only through one property; for example, this is the accuracy of hitting the target; speed of execution of complex coordination movement; economical movement and expenditure of physical forces in difficult environmental conditions; stability of motor skills fulfillment in unforeseen, confusing influences, etc. Most often, such complex assessment criteria are indicators of efficiency (effectiveness) of fulfillment of holistic purposeful motor actions or a combination of these actions, which make a demand for the child's coordinating abilities.
When assessing coordination abilities, the teacher should keep in mind that the above criteria in some cases can characterize explicit (absolute), and in others - latent, or hidden (relative, partial), indicators of coordination abilities.
The main method for diagnosing the coordination abilities of children is motor tests. Experts from different countries have identified the main theoretical and methodological provisions that should be taken into account when choosing tests; selected tests suitable for assessing the absolute and relative indicators characterizing the level of development of motor-coordinating abilities of all age-sex groups; testing methodology developed; good, reliable and informative tests have been installed; for a number of them, standards have been developed taking into account the age and gender of children; recommendations for the use of tests in real conditions were prepared.
Summarizing the above, it should be noted that the objectivity of the criteria used, their specificity and availability make it possible to obtain urgent information on the results of actions. This allows you to independently adjust the parameters of movement, analyze the preparatory and basic actions, find and correct mistakes both with the help of a teacher and independently. Thus, the success of physical culture and health-improving work is due to the timeliness and systematicity of control, the objectivity of assessing the quantitative and qualitative indicators of the assimilation of educational material, the completeness of accounting for the final work for a certain period of time. Objective and systemic control helps the teacher to more accurately manage the process of physical improvement of children, adolescents, boys and girls.
In this article, exercises and their dosage are given only for the performance of boys in grades 10-11. I must say right away that, perhaps, the applied load will seem too large to someone. However, young men cope with it, for they approach it gradually, from the lower grades. Naturally, I should not forget about the differentiated, individual approach to students.
Let me remind you that in one athletics lesson, the sequence of performing the exercises is as follows: first, I suggest exercises for speed and coordination of movements, then - for the development of speed-strength qualities, and last - for endurance. If in the lesson a significant amount of time is devoted to learning movements, then strength and endurance exercises are included at the end of the main part. But when the task of the lesson is the development of general endurance, then I give a uniform long run at the beginning of the lesson after a short warm-up.
Complexes of exercises for the development of speed endurance.
Speed \u200b\u200bendurance, as you know, is developed by using multiple repetitive, interval and variable running of specified distance segments at a set speed and with maximum power. By this principle, it is necessary to work with high school students.
1. Variable running at a distance of 150 m with a possible high speed. It is repeated many times after 100-300 m of slow running. Boys of X class: 100 m at a slow pace, 150 m at a maximum speed, 300 m at a slow pace. 3 series. Rest between series 3-4 min. XI grade boys: the same, but 4 episodes. Rest between series 5-6 minutes. Running is carried out along the perimeter of the gym. Resting time while working on general and speed endurance can be used to develop the muscles of the arms, abdomen, and back. Particular attention should be paid to injury prevention. If pain occurs, you should consult a doctor or use kinesio taping.
2. Running at a uniform pace along the perimeter of the sports hall after the leader with overtaking by the last runner of the entire column - "spinner". (Given in the main part of the lesson). Students begin to run in a circle at an even pace, as set by the leader. At the teacher's signal, the last in the column accelerates on the outside of the running column, overtakes it and becomes the leader. As soon as he accomplishes this, the next closure undertakes the acceleration and overtaking of the column. Such a change of leaders goes on until 
until all participants have been in this role. After this, the exercise is considered complete and the students move on to walking.
Depending on the physical fitness of young men, you can perform the exercises many times, without switching to walking. The number of runners in a group is from 4 to 20 people. The pace of running depends on the physical fitness of the students: the stronger the group, the higher the pace of running, and vice versa.
Exercise "spinner" requires a lot of physical effort from students, so I recommend physically weak young men, as fatigue accumulates, to switch to walking outside the circle. After recuperating, they can continue running, taking their place in the column.
3. Relay running around the perimeter of the gym with running a different number of laps (Fig. 4). An exercise is given at the end of the main part of the lesson. At the teacher's signal, the first numbers of both teams simultaneously start running in a circle, run around 4 racks and pass the baton to the second numbers, while they themselves stand at the end of the column. The second numbers run around 4 racks and pass the baton to the third numbers of their teams, etc. The winning team is determined by the last participant at the finish.
Variants: each participant runs 2 laps in a row, then 3 laps and finally 4 laps in a row. If there are 5 people of different backgrounds in one team, the following scheme can be applied: 1st young man runs 5 laps in a row, 2nd - 4, 3rd - 3, 4th - 2nd and 5th - 1 circle. After 2-3 minutes of rest, the players change numbers and the relay is repeated.
A set of exercises for the development of general endurance.
General endurance is best developed through prolonged,
but of moderate work, giving a gradually increasing load on the heart and lungs. Students perform a long run at a uniform or variable pace in physical education lessons and during independent studies. In the lessons in the X-XI grades, I most often use such means.
1. Running at a steady pace Dosage: X grade - 7-14 minutes; XI class - 8-16 minutes
2. Variable 1000m. Youths run 200m at a calm pace, 200m at moderate intensity, 200m at a calm pace until recovery, 200m at moderate intensity, and the final 200m at a calm pace until full recovery. Dosage: X class - 1 series, XI class - after 4-5 minutes rest. repeat the series.
3. Repeated running 1000 m. Dosage: X class - 2X1000 m, pace of running in the zone of moderate intensity, rest between series 4-5 minutes; XI class: 3X1000 m, running pace in a zone of moderate intensity, rest between series 5-7 minutes.
Students who are less physically prepared perform exercises. 2 and 3 at a calm pace, without switching to the pace of the zone of moderate intensity.
In order to successfully develop physical qualities in schoolchildren, to arouse their interest in this, I strive to diversify as much as possible the means, methods and forms of work. I often use weights - stuffed balls, dumbbells, weights, a barbell, sandbags, etc., using the competitive method. A high effect is given by such an organizational and methodical form of training as circular training, of course, provided it is used correctly.
In general, the teacher of physical education in each individual case must choose the optimal options for the development of physical qualities of students. And first of all, a creative approach to each lesson is needed here.
Special endurance is determined by the specific readiness of all organs and systems of an athlete, the level of his physiological and mental capabilities in relation to the type of athletics. Of particular importance is the ability of an athlete to continue working in case of fatigue due to the manifestation of volitional qualities. Special endurance is also associated with rationality, economy of technique and tactics, it is unique in different types of athletics. Therefore, each of them requires its own methodology for its development.
The main way of developing the special endurance of jumpers and throwers is the repeated performance of exercises in the chosen form of athletics and partially special exercises. Only a very large number of repetitions, including those applied to competitive conditions in order to improve technique and physical qualities, can give excellent special endurance.
The special endurance of an all-around is based on excellent general endurance and on special endurance in all the exercises included in the all-around. The main way to acquire this is to train for two days in a row on the full all-around program, in addition, to develop general endurance in the preparatory period and maintain it in the competitive period.
Differences in the methodology for the development of special endurance in runners at different distances are determined primarily by physiological characteristics in the activity of organs and systems and the whole organism as a whole, associated with the intensity and duration of running, the ratio of oxygen demand and its consumption. It is known that the performance of the body, and especially of the nerve cells of the brain, ultimately depends on the supply of oxygen. Its deficiency greatly reduces the efficiency, especially with prolonged work. Therefore, the importance of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, which provide the body with oxygen, is so great. However, the role of the mental capabilities of athletes is also very important, the ability to continue working without reducing the intensity and not violating the correctness of the technique, despite the developing fatigue.
In the development of the special endurance of runners and runners for long and ultra-long distances, a significant role is played by the body's ability to maintain a high level of balance between oxygen demand and its consumption (aerobic regime) for a long time, to fight the onset of fatigue with a gradually and ever increasing oxygen debt. Consequently, the training technique should provide for higher requirements for the body, increase the functionality of the respiratory and especially the cardiovascular systems. It is necessary to achieve the preservation of a relatively stable state with a higher oxygen demand caused by a high speed of advancement (higher "critical speed"), improve anaerobic mechanisms and strengthen volitional qualities.
Running at medium distances is characterized by a sharp increase in oxygen consumption in the first 1-2 minutes, which quickly reaches the highest level and does not change for a short period of time. However, such a stable state in this case is due not to the fact that the body does not need more oxygen, but to the fact that its consumption reaches the physiological limit at that moment. Thus, during middle-distance running, the oxygen demand exceeds its actual consumption (although it has reached its physiological limit), which creates an oxygen debt. The higher the running speed, the more work occurs in anaerobic mode and the faster fatigue sets in. Lack of oxygen negatively affects primarily the most sensitive central nervous system.
The corresponding centers of the cerebral cortex react to the slightest lack of oxygen, change and improve this activity. Therefore, in the process of training in running at medium distances, an athlete not only strengthens and improves the activity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, but also improves metabolic processes, improves the oxygen consumption coefficient, and makes better use of anaerobic capabilities. The athlete, deliberately running at a higher speed and thereby creating new functional difficulties for the body, teaches him to be content with less than required amount of oxygen, but use it more efficiently. For the same purpose, training is used in mid-altitude, in a pressure chamber, with reduced breathing, breathing with overcoming resistance (through a tube), etc. In addition, during training, the maximum level of oxygen consumption also increases.
The development of endurance in 400 m runners is significantly different. Running at this distance occurs at a very high speed with an unsatisfied demand for oxygen, despite its maximum consumption. Consequently, the improvement of anaerobic mechanisms is one of the main tasks in the development of special endurance in 400 m runners.It is important that the athlete does not reduce his running speed in the last 50-100 m. Therefore, of the training distances from 200 to 600 m, the greatest value for the development of special endurance has a rerun of 400 meters.
Special endurance is required for a 100 and 200 m runner, who overcomes the distance with maximum intensity and in a matter of seconds “explodes” his energy capabilities, as a result of which a very large oxygen debt is created, and metabolic products quickly accumulate in the muscles. As a result, muscle fatigue progresses intensively and running speed decreases. Therefore, endurance in a short sprint is provided primarily by the anaerobic capabilities of the body. Since in
while running at a high speed, the decay of energy substances occurs, very quickly and all biochemical processes in the muscles proceed in almost oxygen-free conditions, it is possible to improve the organs and systems on which endurance in running at 100 and 200 m depends only in such close ones (90-95 % of the maximum speed) to their conditions.
For special endurance in running, the speed reserve plays an important role. There is a definite relationship between the maximum speed on a short stretch and the average distance running speed in which an athlete is. specializes. The more the maximum speed exceeds the average, the better the result the athlete can achieve. At the same time, this difference (in seconds) can serve as a kind of endurance coefficient. The smaller the difference, the higher the endurance coefficient. When determining the difference, for convenience, not the speed in m / s is taken, but the best result of running 100 m from a low start and the average time to overcome 100 m when covering the entire distance with the best result. The longer the distance, the greater the difference for the same athlete between the average time and the best result in the 100 meters sprint. The data obtained on the basis of summarizing the results of many of the strongest runners in the world are given below.
Knowing his best result in running 100 meters from a low start, a runner can determine from the table a possible achievement for himself at a longer distance, of course, if he trains persistently and correctly. So, if a runner runs 100 m in 11 seconds, then he must run 800 m in no worse than 1 minute. 48.8 sec. (11 sec. + 2.6 sec. \u003d \u003d 13.6x 8 \u003d 108.8 sec. \u003d 1 min. 48.8 sec.).
Correctly delivered, rhythmic breathing, using the movement of the diaphragm, is important for a runner at a distance from 400 m to a marathon. The rapid breathing of athletes at these distances, as well as in race walking (often one step is inhalation, the next step is exhalation) should not be shallow * It is very important that from the very first step breathing was of a certain depth, a familiar rhythm (for a given distance ).
Endurance is developed sequentially, in stages, first general, then special. Currently, there are 3-4 such stages. For example, the entire transition period and the beginning of the preparatory period develop general endurance (2-3 months), then the stage of the formation of the so-called special foundation (3-4 months) begins, that is, the stage of daily training with moderate intensity, with a large volume. This is followed by a stage of work
(1-1.5 months) with increased intensity due to strength and speed components (for example, running uphill and downhill) and, finally, special training and participation in competitions (3-5 months). In recent years, there has been a tendency to increase the special foundation stage to 6 months. In this case, the competition stage is shorter.
There may be various options for the gradual development of endurance, but in all cases there must be a stage of formation of a special foundation. Naturally, many other tasks should be solved in the preparatory period (development of strength and flexibility, improvement of speed of movements, education of volitional qualities, etc.). High-speed work and participation in competitions are a means of controlling the progress of training, improving psychological readiness, gaining experience, and improving technique. It should not be forgotten that in the process of training special endurance, including in the competitive period, general endurance and absolute running speed should be maintained.
