Questions

To the exam of the candidate minimum for the course "History and Philosophy of Science"

Compiled by O.V. Korkunova, Yu.N. Tundykov

		P.
1.	Knowledge and cognition (pre-science) in archaic cultures and early civilizations …….
2.	Pre-science and philosophy of knowledge in the ancient world (pre-classical period) ... ... ... ...
3.	Pre-science and philosophy of knowledge in the ancient world (classical period) ... ... ... ... ...
4.	Pre-science in the period of Hellenism and Rome ……………………………………………………
5.	Pre-science and philosophy of knowledge in the Middle Ages ……………………………………… ..
6.	The Renaissance era as the eve of the formation of classical science ……………………….
7.	World outlook concepts of pantheism and deism and their significance for the formation of a scientific picture of the world (in the philosophy of N. Kuzansky, B. Spinoza, D. Bruno and other thinkers and other French enlighteners of the 18th century) …………………………… .. ...
8.	Philosophy of knowledge of F. Bacon and its significance for the transformation of pre-science into science, the formation of a scientific picture of the world ……………………………………………………… ..
9.	Philosophy of cognition by R. Descartes and its significance for the transformation of pre-science into science ... ..
10.	Formation of classical science (17th century) …………………………………………………
11.	The development of natural science in the 17-19 centuries …………………………………………………….
12.	Natural philosophy as a predecessor and antipode of scientific knowledge about nature. The predestination of natural philosophy (19th century) ……………………………………………….
13.	Achievements of social and humanitarian knowledge in the 17-19 centuries ……………………………
14.	The philosophy of knowledge of I Kant and its significance for the development of science in the 18-19 centuries …………… ..
15.	Hegel's system and method and their significance for the development of science in the 19th century …………………… ..
16.	Formation of non-classical science (second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries) ……………… ..
17.	Non-classical and post-non-classical science in the 20th century ………………………………… ...
18.	Formation of Russian Science and Russian Philosophy ……………………………………
19.	Russian science in the late 19th - early 20th centuries …………………………………………….
20.	Features of professional work in science. Social responsibility of a scientist and engineer ………………………………………………………………………………… ...
21.	Professional ethics of a scientist ……………………………………………………….
22.	Science as a cognitive activity ……………………………………………… ...
23.	Science as a social institution …………………………………………………………
24.	Science as a special sphere of culture ………………………………………………………….
25.	The contribution of positivism to the formation of the philosophy of science …………………………………….
26.	The problem of experience and truth in the philosophy of science of the early 20th century (Mach, Avinarius, Poincaré) ………………………………………………………………………………………. ...
27.	Contribution of neopositivism to the development of logic and methodology of science .....................
28.	T. Kuhn's concept of philosophy of science ……………………………………………………
29.	The concept of philosophy of science by K. Popper ………………………………………………
30.	Development of the philosophy of science by post-positivism (I. Lokatos, P. Feyerabent, M. Polani) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ...
31.	Features of scientific knowledge. Science and other forms of understanding the world (philosophy, art, religion) ………………………………………………………………………….
32.	The role of science in the education and formation of a modern person ……………………
33.	The structure of empirical and theoretical knowledge …………………………………… ...
34.	Experiment and observation …………………………………………………………………
35.	Hypothesis and theory …………………………………………………………………………
36.	Ideals and norms of science. Motivation for scientific activity …………………………… ...
37.	Methods of scientific knowledge …………………………………………………………………
38.	The problem of classification of sciences ………………………………………………………… ..
39.	The main regularities in the development of science …………………………………………… ..
40.	Historical types of rationality (classical, non-classical, post-classical) ……………………………………………………………………………
41.	Self-developing synergistic systems and strategy of scientific research …………
42.	Global evolutionism and the modern scientific picture of the world ………………………
43.	Scientism and antiscientism …………………………………………………………… ..
44.	The problem of the meaning and essence of technology ………………………………………………….
45.	The role of technology in the formation of classical mathematized and experimental natural science ………………………………………………………….
46.	The problem of humanization and greening of modern technology ………………………… ..
47.	The scientific picture as background knowledge …………………………………………….
48.	Epistemological, logical and semantic foundations of science. Languages \u200b\u200bof Science ………
49.	Scientific traditions and scientific revolutions ………………………………………………
50.	Philosophical problems of social sciences and humanities …………………………………
51.	Science and pseudoscience …………………………………………………………………………

Knowledge and cognition (pre-science) in archaic cultures and early civilizations.

Human cognition arose by man himself. Animals rely on instinct. But man adds thinking and speech to this. All the origins of science are in the origins of the human perception of the world. Knowledge of the world is inseparable from observations of the world.

Knowledge types:

Type 1: unfocused;

Type 2: purposeful (curiosity, curiosity);

Type 3: in the process of material production of practice (we are transforming the world).

The shapes of some tools, jewelry, etc. appeared at the dawn of mankind, and have not changed significantly to this day. The process of knowing the world is inseparable from man.

The process of knowing the world:

Neanderthals - stone tools;

Mesolithic (10-15 thousand years ago) - domestication of animals, cultivation of plants;

Neolithic (7-10 thousand years BC) - ceramics, weaving, the first division of labor (agriculture separated from hunting and gathering);

Increased specialization has contributed to division of labor, the appearance of the first metal products, copper products. Separating trade from agriculture - need for invoice - maths.

The first civilizations appeared, which suggest:

Developed labor;

The presence of cities;

Private property;

Social development.

Ancient Mesopotamia... This is the first civilization that was located in Iran. Babylon existed for 15 centuries (a new way of recording speech information, graphic writing (IDEOGRAPHY), before that there were drawings, after 2000 years they invented the alphabet, Babylonian priests distinguished stars from planets, established the ecliptic, 12 constellations, lunar calendar, sundial, could extract a square the root of their numbers).

Ancient Egyptian(sunny day, 12 hours, 5 extra days);

Ancient indian (The earth has the shape of a ball and revolves, pyramids, Stonehenge);

Ancient Kiai (anatomical knowledge).

The emergence of natural science
Elements of natural knowledge, knowledge in the field of natural sciences, accumulated gradually in the process of a person's practical activity and were formed mostly based on the needs of this practical life, without becoming a self-sufficient subject of activity. To stand out from practical activities ϶ᴛᴎ elements began in the most organized societies that formed the state and religious structure and mastered writing: Sumer and Ancient Babylon, Ancient Egypt, India, China. To understand why some aspects of natural science appear earlier than others, let us recall the areas of activity familiar to a person of that era:
- agriculture, including agriculture and cattle breeding;
- construction, including religious;
- metallurgy, ceramics and other crafts;
- military affairs, navigation, trade;
- government, society, politics;
- religion and magic.
Consider the question: which sciences are stimulated by ϶ᴛᴎ classes?
1. The development of agriculture requires the development of appropriate agricultural technology.
Moreover, the period from the development of the latter to the generalizations of mechanics is too long to seriously consider the genesis of mechanics from, say, the needs of agriculture. Although practical mechanics undoubtedly developed during this time. For example, one can trace the emergence of a water mill (V-III centuries BC) from a primitive ancient grain grinder, through a grain mill (millstones) - the first machine in world history.
2. Irrigation work in Ancient Babylon and Egypt required knowledge of practical hydraulics.


River flood management, irrigation of fields with canals, metering of distributed water develops elements of mathematics. Π the first water-lifting devices - a gate, on the drum of which a rope was wound, carrying a vessel for water; "Crane" - the earliest ancestors of cranes and most lifting devices and machines.
3. Specific climatic conditions of Egypt and Babylon, strict government regulation of production dictated the need to develop an accurate calendar, time counting, and hence - astronomical knowledge. The Egyptians developed a calendar of 12 months of 30 days and 5 additional days per year. The month was divided into 3 ten-day days, the day into 24 hours: 12 daytime hours and 12 nighttime (the value of the hour was not constant, but changed with the season). Botany and biology did not stand out from agricultural practice for a long time. The first beginnings of these sciences appeared only among the Greeks.
4. Construction, especially the grandiose state and religious buildings, required at least empirical knowledge of structural mechanics and statics, as well as geometry. The ancient East was well acquainted with such mechanical tools as a lever and a wedge. For the construction of the Cheops pyramid, 23,300,000 boulders were used, the average weight of which is 2.5 tons. During the construction of temples, colossal statues and obelisks, the weight of individual blocks reached tens and even hundreds of tons. Such blocks were delivered from the quarries on special skids. In quarries, a wedge was used to detach stone blocks from the rock. Weights were lifted using inclined planes. For example, the sloping road to the Khafre pyramid had an elevation of 45.8 m and a length of 494.6 m. Therefore, the angle of inclination to the horizon was 5.3 degrees, and the gain in strength when lifting gravity to this height was significant. I must say that rockers were used for facing and adjusting the stones, and possibly also when lifting them from step to step. A lever was also used to lift and move the boulders horizontally.
By the beginning of the last millennium BC. the peoples of the Mediterranean were quite well aware of those five simplest lifting devices, which were later called simple machines: a lever, a block, a gate, a wedge, an inclined plane. At the same time, not a single ancient Egyptian or Babylonian text describing the operation of such machines has reached us, the results of practical experience, apparently, were not subjected to theoretical processing. The construction of large and complex structures dictated the need for knowledge in the field of geometry, the calculation of areas, volumes, which first stood out in a theoretical form. The development of structural mechanics requires knowledge of the properties of materials, materials science. The ancient East knew well, knew how to get very high quality bricks (including fired and glazed), tiles, lime, cement.
5. Β antiquity (even before the Greeks) 7 metals were known: gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, mercury, iron, as well as alloys between them: bronzes (copper with arsenic, tin or lead) and brass (copper with zinc ). Zinc and arsenic were used as compounds. There was also a corresponding technique for melting metals: furnaces, bellows and charcoal as a fuel, which made it possible to reach a temperature of 1500 ° C for melting iron. The variety of pottery produced by ancient craftsmen, in particular, allowed archeology to become an almost exact science in the future. In Egypt, glass was brewed, and multi-colored, with the use of various pigments-dyes. A wide range of pigments and paints used in various fields of ancient craftsmanship will envy a modern colorist. Observations on changes in natural substances in craft practice, probably, served as the basis for discussions about the fundamental principle of matter among Greek physicists. Some of the mechanisms used by artisans, almost to this day, were invented in ancient times. For example, a lathe (of course, manual, woodworking), a spinning wheel.
6. There is no need to dwell on the influence of trade, navigation, military affairs on the process of the emergence of scientific knowledge. We only note that even the simplest types of weapons must be made with an intuitive knowledge of their mechanical properties. The design of the arrow and the throwing spear (dart) already contains an implicit concept of the stability of movement, and in the mace and the battle ax - the assessment of the value of the impact force. In the invention of the sling and the bow with arrows, an awareness of the relationship between flight range and throw power was manifested. In general, the level of development of technology in military affairs was significantly higher than in agriculture, especially in Greece and Rome. Navigation stimulated the development of the same astronomy for coordination in time and space, shipbuilding techniques, hydrostatics and much more. Trade contributed to the dissemination of technical knowledge. In addition, the property of the lever - the basis of any balance was known long before the Greek mechanics - statics. It should be noted that, unlike agriculture and even handicrafts,, areas of activity were the privilege of free people.
7. Governance of the state required accounting and distribution of products, wages, working time, especially in Eastern societies. I must say that this required at least the rudiments of arithmetic. Sometimes (Babylon) government needs required knowledge of astronomy. Literature, which played an important role in the development of scientific knowledge, is in many ways a product of the state.
8. The relationship between religion and the emerging sciences is the subject of a special deep and separate study. As an example, we will only point out that the connection between the starry sky and the mythology of the Egyptians is very close and direct, and therefore the development of astronomy and the calendar was dictated not only by the needs of agriculture.
Let's try to summarize the information that was highlighted in the Ancient East as theoretical knowledge.

One of the approaches was developed by V.S.Stepin: two stages (where 1- characterizes the emerging science (pre-science) and 2 - science in the proper sense of the word.), which correspond to two different methods of building knowledge and two forms of forecasting performance results.

Thus, science as such is preceded by a pre-classical stage (pre-science) , where the elements (prerequisites) of science are born - these are the rudiments of knowledge in the Ancient East, in Greece and Rome, and the Middle Ages up to the 16-17 centuries, was the starting point of natural science. Pre-science, on the other hand, studies those things and ways of changing them, with which a person repeatedly encounters in his practical activity and everyday experience. Activity of thinking - an idealized scheme of practical actions

The reasons for the emergence of science in the 16-17 centuries .:

Socio-economic (the establishment of capitalism and the urgent need for the growth of its productive forces),

Social (break in spiritual culture, undermining the dominance of religion) conditions,

It was necessary to determine the level of development of knowledge itself.

In public life, a new image of the world and a style of thinking began to form, which destroyed the previous picture of the universe and led to the formation of an orientation towards mechanism and quantitative methods. Galileo was the first to introduce into cognition that which became a characteristic feature of scientific cognition - a thought experiment.

Characteristics of the new style of thinking: attitude to nature as a self-sufficient natural object; the formation of the principle of strict quantitative assessment.

At this time, interest sharply increases not only in specific scientific knowledge, but also in general theoretical, methodological, and philosophical problems. In modern times, the process of demarcation between philosophy and the private sciences is developing at an accelerated pace.

The process of differentiation of knowledge goes along three main areas :

1. separation of science from philosophy.

2. Separation within the framework of science as a whole of separate special sciences - mechanics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, etc.

3. Isolation in the integral philosophical knowledge of such philosophical disciplines as ontology, philosophy of nature, philosophy of history, epistemology, logic, etc.
Classification of the stages of development of science:

1. Classical science (XVII-XIX centuries), while exploring her objects, she strove, in their description and theoretical explanation, to eliminate, if possible, everything that relates to the subject, the means, methods and operations of his activity. It has a paradigm of mechanics, its picture of the world is built on the principle of rigid (Laplacean) determinism, it corresponds to the image of the universe as a clockwork
2. Non-classical science (first half of the XX century) The paradigm of relativity, discreteness, quantization, probability, complementarity.
3. Post-nonclassical science (second half of XX - early XXI century) takes into account the inclusion of subjective activity in the “body of knowledge”. The main features of the new image of science are expressed by synergetics, which studies the general principles of self-organization processes occurring in systems of the most diverse nature.

Science in the Antique Period.

The prerequisite for the emergence of knowledge, many researchers in the history of science consider myth. A myth is a special type of thinking. The myth combines two aspects: diachronic (a story about the past, about first ancestors, about primary objects in the “initial” sacred time) and synchronic (explanation of the present and sometimes the future).
In antiquity and the Middle Ages, basically there was a philosophical knowledge of the world. The form of rudiments and knowledge and methods of antiquity and the Middle Ages is associated with the cultural upheaval that took place in ancient Greece during the "great colonization". The ancient Greeks try to describe and explain the fuss, development and structure of the world as a whole. These their ideas were called natural philosophical. The main activity of the scientist consisted in contemplation and comprehension of the contemplated.
Among the significant natural philosophical ideas of antiquity, of interest are atomism and elementarism ... The solution to the cosmogonic problem posed by Parmenides is further developed. Leucippus and Democritus. Plato combined the doctrine of the elements and the atomistic concept of the structure of matter, arguing that the four elements - fire, air, water and earth - are not the simplest constituent parts of things. Aristotle (384-322 BC) created a comprehensive system of knowledge about the world. To explain the processes of movement, changes in development, he introduces four types of reasons: material, formal, acting and target.
The main feature of Hellenistic culture was individualism, caused by the instability of the social-political situation, it is impossible for a person to influence the fate of the polis, the increased migration of the population, the increased role of the ruler and the bureaucracy. This was reflected both in the main f systems of Hellenism - Stoicism (Zeno), skepticism, Epicureanism, Neoplatonism, and in some natural philosophical ideas.
Thus, in antiquity such systems of knowledge appear that can be presented as the first model theory ... But the absence of an experimental base does not give the possibility of the birth of truly theories of natural science and science in general.

Knowledge and cognition (pre-science) in archaic cultures and early civilizations

Logic and philosophy

Knowledge and cognition of pre-science in archaic cultures and early civilizations Science as such is preceded by pre-science pre-classical stage where elements of the precondition of science are born. It is this period that is most often considered the beginning of the starting point of natural science and science as a whole as a systematic study of reality. Knowledge existed in a religious and mystical form and therefore was available only to priests who can read the holy books and, as carriers of practical knowledge, have power over people. The priests accumulate ...

1. Knowledge and cognition (pre-science) in archaic cultures and early civilizations

Science as such is preceded by pre-science (pre-classical stage), where the elements (prerequisites) of science are born. This refers to the rudiments of knowledge in the Ancient East, in Greece and Rome, as well as in the Middle Ages, up to the XVI-XVII centuries. It is this period that is most often considered the beginning, the starting point of natural science (and science in general) as a systematic study of reality.

In the ancient Egyptian civilization, a complex apparatus of state power arose, closely intertwined with the sacred apparatus of the priests. The bearers of knowledge were priests, who, depending on the level of initiation, possessed a particular amount of knowledge. Knowledge existed in a religious and mystical form and therefore was available only to priests who can read sacred books and, as carriers of practical knowledge, have power over people.

As a rule, people settled in river valleys, where water is close, but here there is a danger - river floods. Therefore, there is a need for systematic observation of natural phenomena, which contributed to the discovery of certain connections between them and led to the creation of a calendar, the discovery of cyclically repeating eclipses of the Sun, etc. Priests accumulate knowledge in the field of mathematics, chemistry, medicine, pharmacology, psychology, they are good at hypnosis. Skillful mummification indicates that the ancient Egyptians had certain achievements in the field of medicine, chemistry, surgery, physics, they developed iridology.

Since any economic activity was associated with calculations, a large body of knowledge in the field of mathematics was accumulated: calculating areas, calculating the product produced, calculating payments, taxes, proportions were used, since the distribution of benefits was carried out in proportion to social and professional ranks. For practical use, many tables with ready-made solutions were created. The ancient Egyptians were engaged only in those mathematical operations that were necessary for their immediate economic needs, but they never engaged in the creation of theories - one of the most important signs of scientific knowledge.

The Sumerians invented the potter's wheel, wheel, bronze, colored glass, established that the year is 365 days, 6 hours, 15 minutes, 41 seconds (for reference: the modern value is 365 days 5 hours, 48 \u200b\u200bminutes, 46 seconds), they created the original concept of Me, containing the wisdom of the Sumerian civilization, most of the texts of which have not been deciphered.

The specificity of the development of the world by the Sumerian and other civilizations of Ancient Mesopotamia is due to a way of thinking that is fundamentally different from the European one: there is no rational study of the world, a theoretical solution to problems, and most often analogies from human life are used to explain phenomena.

Many researchers of the history of science consider a myth as a prerequisite for the emergence of scientific knowledge. In it, as a rule, the identification of various objects, phenomena, events occurs (Sun \u003d gold, water \u003d milk \u003d blood). For identification, it was necessary to master the operation of highlighting "essential" features, as well as to learn how to compare various objects, phenomena according to the selected features, which later played a significant role in the formation of knowledge.

Essential features of ancient Eastern pre-science.

Most developed during the 6th century. BC. in agrarian, remfrom feudal, military, trade relationse nii eastern civilization (Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China) has developed a definiten new knowledge. This knowledge was accumulated, stored and transmittedand were formed from generation to generation, which allowed them to optimally organize their activities. However, nand the possession of some knowledge does not in itself create science. It is determined purposefullyn activities ins development of new knowledge.

1. In the ancient East, knowledge was developed through generalizations of practical experience and circulated in society according to the principle of hereditary professionalism. The processes of knowledge change occurred spontaneously, there was no critical-reflective activity to assess knowledge. Knowledge was accepted on an unsubstantiated basis, knowledge functioned as a set of ready-made recipes, which followed from its practical nature.

2. A feature of ancient Eastern science is the lack of fundamentality. Science is not an activity on the development of recipe-technological schemes, recommendations, but a self-sufficient activity on the analysis, development of theoretical questions - "cognition for the sake of cognition." Ancient Eastern science is focused on solving applied problems. Even astronomy, seemingly not a practical exercise, functioned in Babylon as an applied art, serving either cult (the times of sacrifices are tied to the periodicity of celestial phenomena - the phases of the moon, etc.), or astrological (identifying favorable and unfavorable conditions for current politics and etc.) activities. In comparison: at that time in ancient Greece, astronomy was understood not as a computing technique, but as a theoretical science about the structure of the Universe as a whole.

3. Ancient East. science was not rational, which was due to the nature of the socio - political structure of the ancient Eastern countries. Anti-democracy in the socio-political life of these countries (the countries of the Middle East are an outright despotism) was reflected in their intellectual life. The preference was given not to rational argumentation and proof, but to authority. The absence of prerequisites for substantiating knowledge and the accepted mechanisms for accumulating and transmitting knowledge led it to fetishization (religious blind worship). The lack of democracy, the resulting priestly monopoly on science, determined its irrational, dogmatic nature, turning it into a kind of semi-mystical, sacred (sacred, related to religious) knowledge.

4. Solving random problems of a private non-theoretical nature deprived the ancient East. the science of systematicity. Since the search was focused on finding practical recipes, there was no universal evidence. And the lack of evidence-based consideration of the subject in general made it impossible to derive the necessary information about it.

Consequently, if we proceed from the fact that such features as fundamentality, evidence, rationality are necessary for the specification of science as an element of a superstructure, a special type of rationality, then science in this understanding did not develop on Dr. East. And the historical type of cognitive activity that developed in the Old East corresponds to the pre-scientific stage of the development of the intellect and is not yet scientific.

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Elements of natural knowledge, knowledge in the field of natural sciences, accumulated gradually in the process of a person's practical activity and were formed mostly based on the needs of this practical life, without becoming a self-sufficient subject of activity. These elements began to stand out from practical activity in the most organized societies that formed the state and religious structure and mastered writing: Sumer and Ancient Babylon, Ancient Egypt, India, China. To understand why some aspects of natural science appear earlier than others, let us recall the areas of activity familiar to a person of that era:

Agriculture, including agriculture and animal husbandry;

Construction, including cult;

Metallurgy, ceramics and other crafts;

Military affairs, navigation, trade;

Government, society, politics;

Religion and magic.

Let us consider the question: the development of which sciences stimulate these studies?

1. Development of agriculture requires the development of appropriate agricultural technology. However, the period from the development of the latter to the generalizations of mechanics is too long to seriously consider the genesis of mechanics from, say, the needs of agriculture. Although practical mechanics undoubtedly developed during this time. For example, you can trace the emergence of a water mill (V-III centuries BC) from a primitive ancient grain grinder, through a grain mill (millstones) - the first machine in world history.

2. Irrigation work in Ancient Babylon and Egypt required knowledge of practical hydraulics. River flood management, irrigation of fields with canals, metering of distributed water develops elements of mathematics. The first water-lifting devices were a gate, on the drum of which a rope was wound, carrying a vessel for water; "Crane" - the earliest ancestors of cranes and most lifting devices and machines.

3. Specific climatic conditions of Egypt and Babylon, strict government regulation of production dictated the need to develop an accurate calendar, time counting, and hence - astronomical knowledge. The Egyptians developed a calendar of 12 months of 30 days and 5 additional days per year. The month was divided into 3 ten-day days, the day into 24 hours: 12 daytime hours and 12 nighttime (the value of the hour was not constant, but changed with the season). Botany and biology did not stand out from agricultural practice for a long time. The first beginnings of these sciences appeared only among the Greeks.

4. Construction, especially the grandiose state and religious buildings, required at least empirical knowledge of structural mechanics and statics, as well as geometry. The ancient East was well acquainted with such mechanical tools as a lever and a wedge. For the construction of the Cheops pyramid, 23,300,000 boulders were used, the average weight of which is 2.5 tons. During the construction of temples, colossal statues and obelisks, the weight of individual blocks reached tens and even hundreds of tons. Such blocks were delivered from the quarries on special skids. In quarries, a wedge was used to detach stone blocks from the rock. Weights were lifted using inclined planes. For example, the sloping road to the Khafre pyramid had an elevation of 45.8 m and a length of 494.6 m. Therefore, the angle of inclination to the horizon was 5.3 0, and the gain in strength when lifting gravity to this height was significant. Rocking chairs were used for facing and adjusting the stones, and possibly when lifting them from step to step. A lever was also used to lift and move the boulders horizontally.

By the beginning of the last millennium BC. the peoples of the Mediterranean were quite well aware of those five simplest lifting devices, which were later called simple machines: a lever, a block, a gate, a wedge, an inclined plane. However, not a single ancient Egyptian or Babylonian text describing the operation of such machines has reached us; the results of practical experience, apparently, were not subjected to theoretical processing. The construction of large and complex structures dictated the need for knowledge in the field of geometry, the calculation of areas, volumes, which first stood out in theoretical form. The development of structural mechanics requires knowledge of the properties of materials, materials science. The ancient East knew well, knew how to get very high quality bricks (including fired and glazed), tiles, lime, cement.

5. In antiquity (even before the Greeks) 7 metals were known: gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, mercury, iron, as well as alloys between them: bronzes (copper with arsenic, tin or lead) and brass (copper with zinc ). Zinc and arsenic were used as compounds. There was also an appropriate technique for melting metals: furnaces, bellows and charcoal as a fuel, which made it possible to reach a temperature of 1500 ° C for melting iron. The variety of pottery produced by ancient craftsmen, in particular, allowed archeology to become an almost exact science in the future. In Egypt, glass was brewed, and multi-colored, with the use of various pigments-dyes. A wide range of pigments and paints used in various fields of ancient craftsmanship will envy a modern colorist. Observations on changes in natural substances in craft practice, probably, served as the basis for discussions about the fundamental principle of matter among Greek physicists. Some of the mechanisms used by artisans, almost to this day, were invented in ancient times. For example, a lathe (of course, manual, woodworking), a spinning wheel.

6. There is no need to dwell on the influence of trade, navigation, military affairs on the process of the emergence of scientific knowledge. We only note that even the simplest types of weapons must be made with an intuitive knowledge of their mechanical properties. The design of the arrow and the throwing spear (dart) already contains an implicit concept of the stability of movement, and in the mace and the battle ax - the assessment of the value of the impact force. In the invention of the sling and the bow with arrows, an awareness of the relationship between flight range and throw power was manifested. In general, the level of development of technology in military affairs was significantly higher than in agriculture, especially in Greece and Rome. Navigation stimulated the development of the same astronomy for coordination in time and space, shipbuilding techniques, hydrostatics, and much more. Trade contributed to the dissemination of technical knowledge. In addition, the property of the lever - the basis of any balance was known long before the Greek statics mechanics. It should be noted that unlike agriculture and even handicrafts, these areas of activity were the privilege of free people.

7. Government management required accounting and distribution of products, wages, working hours, especially in Eastern societies. For this, at least the rudiments of arithmetic were needed. Sometimes (Babylon) government needs required knowledge of astronomy. Writing, which played a crucial role in the development of scientific knowledge, is in many ways a product of the state.

8. The relationship between religion and the emerging sciences is the subject of a special deep and separate study. As an example, we will only point out that the connection between the starry sky and the mythology of the Egyptians is very close and direct, and therefore the development of astronomy and the calendar was dictated not only by the needs of agriculture. In the future, in the context of the lecture material, we will pay attention to these connections.

Let's try to summarize the information that was highlighted in the Ancient East as theoretical knowledge.

Maths.

Egyptian sources of the 2nd millennium BC are known. mathematical content: the Rinda papyrus (1680 BC, British Museum) and the Moscow papyrus. They contain the solution of individual problems encountered in practice, mathematical calculations, calculations of areas and volumes. The Moscow papyrus contains a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid. The Egyptians calculated the area of \u200b\u200ba circle by squaring 8/9 of the diameter, which gives pi a residually good approximation of 3.16. Despite the existence of all the premises, Neugebauer / 1 / notes a rather low level of theoretical mathematics in ancient Egypt. This is explained by the following: “Even in the most advanced economic structures of antiquity, the need for mathematics did not go beyond the bounds of elementary home arithmetic, which no mathematician would call mathematics. The requirements for mathematics from the side of technical problems are such that the means of ancient mathematics were not enough for any practical applications. "

Sumerian-Babylonian mathematics was a cut above the Egyptian. The texts on which our information about it is based refer to 2 sharply limited and far-apart periods: most of them - to the time of the ancient Babylonian dynasty of Hammurabi 1800 - 1600. BC, a smaller part - to the era of the Seleucids 300 - 0 years. BC e. The content of the texts differs little, only the “0” sign appears. It is impossible to trace the development of mathematical knowledge, everything appears at once, without evolution. There are two groups of texts: a large one - texts of tables of arithmetic operations, fractions, etc., including student's, and a small one, containing the texts of problems (about 100 of the 500,000 tablets found).

The Babylonians knew the Pythagorean theorem, knew very precisely the value of the main irrational number - the root of 2, calculated squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, were able to solve systems of equations and quadratic equations. Babylonian mathematics is algebraic. Just as for our algebra it is only interested in algebraic relations, geometric terminology is not used.

However, both Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics are characterized by a complete absence of theoretical research on counting methods. No attempt at proof. Babylonian tablets with tasks are divided into 2 groups: "problem books" and "problem books". In the latter of them, the solution of the problem sometimes ends with the phrase: "this is the procedure." The classification of problems by type was the highest stage in the development of generalization, to which the thought of mathematicians of the Ancient East managed to rise. Apparently, the rules were found empirically, through repeated trial and error.

At the same time, mathematics was of a purely utilitarian nature. With the help of arithmetic, Egyptian scribes solved problems about calculating wages, about bread, about beer for workers, etc. There is still no clear distinction between geometry and arithmetic. Geometry is just one of the many objects in practical life to which arithmetic methods can be applied. In this respect, special texts are characteristic, intended for scribes who dealt with mathematical problems. The scribes had to know all the numerical coefficients they needed to calculate. The lists of coefficients contain coefficients for “bricks”, for “walls”, for “triangle”, for “segment of a circle”, then for “copper, silver, gold”, for “cargo ship”, “barley”, for “diagonal” , “Cutting the reed”, etc. / 2 /.

According to Neugebauer, even Babylonian mathematics did not cross the threshold of pre-scientific thinking. However, he connects this conclusion not with the lack of evidence, but with the unawareness of the irrationality of the root of 2 by the Babylonian mathematicians.

Astronomy.

Egyptian astronomy throughout its history was at an extremely immature level / 1 /. Apparently, there was no other astronomy other than observing the stars to compile the calendar in Egypt. There was not a single record of astronomical observations in the Egyptian texts. Astronomy was used almost exclusively to serve time and regulate a strict timetable for ritual ceremonies. Egyptian astronomical terminology has left traces in astrology.

Assyro-Babylonian astronomy conducted systematic observations from the era of Nabonassar (747 BC). For the period "prehistoric" 1800 - 400 years. BC. in Babylon, the sky was divided into 12 signs of the Zodiac, 300 each, as a standard scale for describing the movement of the Sun and planets, and a fixed lunisolar calendar was developed. After the Assyrian period, a turn towards the mathematical description of astronomical events becomes noticeable. However, the most productive was the fairly late period of 300 - 0 years. This period provided us with texts based on a consistent mathematical theory of the motion of the moon and planets.

The main goal of Mesopotamian astronomy was the correct prediction of the apparent position of celestial bodies: the moon, sun and planets. Sufficiently developed astronomy of Babylon is usually explained by such an important application of it as state astrology (the astrology of antiquity had no personal character). Her task was to predict the favorable location of the stars for making important government decisions. Thus, despite the non-materialistic application (politics, religion), astronomy in the Ancient East, as well as mathematics, was of a purely utilitarian, as well as dogmatic, unsubstantiated character. In Babylon, not a single observer came up with the thought: "Does the apparent movement of the stars correspond to their actual movement and location?" However, among the astronomers who worked already in Hellenistic times, Seleucus the Chaldean was known, who, in particular, defended the heliocentric model of the world of Aristarchus of Samos.