The concept of civil buildings and their classification
By designation, civil buildings are divided into residential and public.
Residential buildings include:
Multi-apartment residential buildings;
Individual residential buildings;
Manor-type residential buildings;
Dormitories - for long-term residence of people;
Hotels - for short stays;
Houses are boarding schools.
Public buildings include:
1. Buildings intended for all types of human activities:
Kindergartens;
Hospitals;
Shops, etc.
2. Buildings of national or major cultural significance:
Government buildings;
Palaces of Culture;
Athletic facilities.
In terms of number of storeys, civil buildings are distinguished depending on the location of the floor to the sidewalk or blind area:
The floor, the floor of which is located not below the sidewalk or blind area, is called the aboveground floor;
A floor, the floor of which is located below the sidewalk or blind area, but not more than half the height of the room, is called a basement or semi-basement;
A floor, the floor of which is more than half below the sidewalk or blind area, is called a basement;
The floor built into the attic space is called the attic.
Basic requirements for buildings:
1) functional feasibility (full compliance with the purpose of the building);
2) strength;
3) stability;
4) durability (according to SNIP, there are 3 degrees of durability: the service life of the building is 100 years; 50 years; 20 years);
5) By class of responsibility
7) fire resistance (in Belarus there are 8 degrees of fire resistance);
8) operational requirements - the creation of working and living conditions in the building;
9) efficiency (depends on the rational choice of materials and methods of work);
10) architectural and artistic requirements.
By the nature of the material of the outer walls, buildings are subdivided into wood and stone.
By the number of storeys of the building there are:
Low-rise (up to 2 floors);
Mid-rise (3-5 floors);
Increased number of storeys (6-9 floors);
Multi-storey buildings (10-25 floors);
High-rise buildings (more than 25 floors) /
All buildings are divided into 4 classes:
□ class - buildings meet increased requirements (any number of storeys);
□ classroom - residential and public buildings up to 9 floors of mass construction;
□ class - residential and public buildings of medium storey up to 5 floors;
□ class - buildings that meet the minimum requirements, up to 2 floors.
For each class, depending on the purpose of the building, the norms provide for certain degrees of durability, fire resistance, operational standards, and also take into account the degree of moisture resistance, frost resistance, fire resistance, etc.
Basic provisions of the modular system
The dimensions of building structures must be coordinated and mutually linked.
The set of rules, the order of coordination and the assignment of dimensions of space-planning and structural elements, products and equipment constitutes a Unified modular system in construction - EMC.
The purpose of using EMC is to create a basis for unification, typification and standardization in the design, production of building structures and products. Module \u003d 300
Enlarged and fractional modules are used (see Fig. 2).
To accurately determine the relative position of the vertical elements of the bearing frame of the building (walls and columns), a system of modular alignment axes is used in architectural and structural drawings. The lines of the longitudinal axes are usually marked with letters, the lines of the transverse ones - with numbers.
Nominal (modular) size denotes the design distance between the modular alignment axes of the building or the conventional size of a structural element, including the corresponding parts of the joints and gaps, assigned in accordance with the rules of the modular system.
Structural size - the design size of a structural element, building product or equipment, which differs from the nominal size, as a rule, by the size of the standard gap.
Actual size - the actual distance between the alignment axes of the constructed building and structure or the actual dimensions of its parts or elements (see Fig. 3).
Enlarged modules are used to assign the dimensions of buildings and structures - the width, length and height of buildings, column steps, distances between supporting structures, floor heights, span sizes (trusses, beams, slabs). Basic and fractional - to indicate the thickness of slab and sheet materials, the dimensions of the gaps between the elements, the section of columns, beams, lintels, structural elements and parts.
The combination of such elements as foundations, walls, and individual floor supports is called the supporting frame of the building. Depending on the type of the supporting frame, the main structural schemes of buildings are distinguished:
1. Buildings with load-bearing walls (frameless);
2. Buildings with an incomplete frame;
3. Frame buildings.
In buildings with load-bearing walls, the load from floors, roofs, etc. is perceived by walls: longitudinal, transverse, or both longitudinal and transverse at the same time.
In frame buildings, all the load is transferred to the frame, that is, a system of interconnected vertical elements (columns) and horizontal (girders and girders).
Structural schemes of frameless buildings
A) bearing longitudinal walls (see Fig. 4);
B) transverse load-bearing walls (see fig. 4);
Structural diagrams with mixed frame
A) the longitudinal arrangement of the crossbars (see Fig. 5);
B) the transverse arrangement of the crossbars (see Fig. 5).
Structural schemes of frame buildings
A) with a longitudinal transom (see Fig. 6);
B) with a transverse arrangement of crossbars (see Fig. 6);
B) with a cross arrangement of crossbars (see fig. 6);
D) bezel-free solution (see Fig. 6).
Figure: 1.
MODULAR SIZE COORDINATION SYSTEM
Figure: 2.
a - spatial system of modular planes; b - the relationship of enlarged modules in the plane
MARKING OF COORDINATION (PALLET) AXES
AND LINKING STRUCTURES
Figure: 3. a - axle marking; b - binding the walls; c, d - binding of columns
(c - "zero" binding of the outer edges of the columns; d - their binding at a distance a)
BUILDINGS WITH LOADING WALLS
LONGITUDINALCROSS
Figure: 4.
INCOMPLETE FRAME BUILDINGS
LONGITUDINAL POSITION TRANSVERSE POSITION
RIGELI RIGEL
Figure: five.
FRAME BUILDINGS
|
WITH LONGITUDINAL LOCATION OF CRANKS |
WITH CROSS LOCATION OF CRANKS |
|
CROSS LOCATION OF CRANKS |
CRANKLESS SYSTEM |
Figure: 6.
Architecture
Classification of foundations of civil buildings by design, materials and construction methods.
According to the structural scheme, the foundations are divided into: belt, columnar or free-standing, solid and pile
Classification of foundations by material:
Stone foundation
Butovy stone foundation
Concrete stone foundation
Brick stone foundation
Reinforced concrete foundation
Precast concrete foundation
Monolithic reinforced concrete foundation
Aerated concrete foundation
By depth:
Shallow (less than 5m)
Deep-laid (more than 5 m)
Strip foundations
Monolithic strip foundations (fig. 9.).
In the simplest case, rectangular. In most cases, to transfer pressure to the base, which does not exceed the standard pressure on the ground, it is necessary to widen the base of the foundation (Fig. 10). The depth of the foundations should correspond to the depth of the soil layer that can be taken as the natural foundation. It is also necessary to take into account the depth of soil freezing. The standard frost penetration depth is indicated in SNiP. With heaving soils, the depth of the foundations should be considered 100 mm lower than the freezing depth. In non-porous soils, the depth of the foundation does not depend on the depth of freezing. Foundations made of rubble stone do not meet the requirements of industrial construction (mechanization of work is difficult, the pace of construction slows down, especially in winter). The use of rubble concrete and concrete foundations allows for wider use of mechanization in their construction.
Prefabricated strip foundations: (fig. 11.)
For external walls 400, 500, 600mm;
Foundation block height - 580 mm;
Block seam - 20 mm
From one depth of laying a monolithic strip foundation to another, they gradually move with the device of ledges.
The ratio of the height of the ledge to its length should be no more than 1: 2, and the height of the ledge must be no more than 0.5m, and the length must be at least 1m. On more stable soils, the ratio of the bench height to its length is allowed no more than 1: 1, and the bench height is no more than 1 m.
If the building is being erected on prefabricated foundations, the height of the ledge can be taken equal to the height of the unified block, i.e. 0.6m; in this case, the length of the ledge must be at least 1.2 m.
The distance between the axes of the seams is 600 mm (in height).
The blocks are staggered with bandaging of seams. Length - 1180 mm; 2380 mm (pawls) additional thickness - 180 mm. Foundation blocks with seams with iron concrete mortar, on reinforced concrete cushions with a height of 300 mm, a width of up to 2.80 m (Fig. 12).
Intermittent foundations for load-bearing walls (Figure 8-b).
Monolithic reinforced concrete belts in areas with high seismicity. Reinforcing bars + concrete pouring 5-6 cm. Fragments of monolithic sections: at the corners at the locations of communications.
Strip panel foundations (fig. 14.).
In large-panel buildings, it is advisable to replace individual blocks of foundations and basement walls with large-sized elements. They consist of end-to-end frameless trusses (panels and blocks or ribbed panels - pillows).
By form: tape, free-standing, slab, pile. By material: wooden, rubble, stone, rubble concrete, concrete, metal. By technology: prefabricated, precast-monolithic, monolithic (concrete, rubble concrete., rubble). Requirements for fund .: strength, durability, resistance to overturning and sliding, resistance to impact groundwater, chemical and biological aggression. Strip foundations arrange under all the main walls, and in some cases under the rows of columns in the form of a continuous tape ( rice a, b). Freestanding foundations - separate slabs with pillars or column shoes installed on them. They are suitable for frame buildings. A variety of free-standing foundations are columnar, which are designed for low-rise buildings ( rice c, d). Solid foundations - monolithic slab under the entire area of \u200b\u200bthe building or part of it, it is used for heavy loads on the walls and with fragile soils at the base (e, f). Pile foundations (f) used on soft soils, with deep bedding of strong continental rocks, high loads, etc. They are widely used for ordinary bases, since this gives volume savings earthworks and concrete costs. Pile foundations are: hanging, rack piles. There are: factory-made, concrete, brown rammed. Cross-section: round, square, annular. They come with a grillage (monolithic, prefabricated), without a grillage. The choice is determined by the design, load. The arrangement of the piles is single-row, double-row in shafts. a lot. With a prefabricated grillage, the head is finished on the pile and then the grillage is laid.
By the construction method: industrial and non-industrial. By depth into the ground: petty (less than 5m) and deep (more than 5m) laying.
a-tapes under the walls; b-under the columns; in-column under the walls; g - glass under the column; d-solid bezelless; e-solid beam; f-pile
1-wall; 2-tape f-t; 3-reinforced concrete column; 4-reinforced concrete foundation beam; 5-column f-t; 6-grillage of the pile faculty; 7-reinforced concrete foundation slab; 8-piles
Requirements for floors of civil buildings. Classification of floors by materials and areas of their application.
The floors, in addition to the requirements for sound insulation, are required for wear resistance, low heat absorption; sanitary and hygienic, decorative and economic (in operation and production).
Depending on the purpose of the premises, additional requirements are imposed on the floors: fireproof; waterproof, noiseless, bio-resistant, etc.
The following layers can be distinguished in the floor structure:
· Covering - top layer. By the material from which it is made, the name of the floor is determined (plank, parquet, tiled, etc.);
· Interlayer - an intermediate layer connecting the coating with the underlying layer;
· Base - a layer that distributes the load on the load-bearing part of the floor;
Screed - a floor layer serving as its base and leveling the surface of the underlying layer or giving a slope to the floor covering;
· A waterproofing layer that prevents moisture penetration into the floor structure;
· A heat-insulating layer, arranged in cases where the overlap plays the role of an external fence (over driveways, undergrounds, cold storage rooms, in the ceilings of cold attics);
· Vapor barrier layer, placed in insulated ceilings in order to prevent condensation of water vapor in the heat insulation layer. The vapor barrier layer is made of roll materials (roofing felt, glassine, etc.) and is installed in the path of the heat flow in front of the heat-insulating layer (Fig. 19.11);
· Soundproofing layer - reducing the level of impact and airborne noise of the floor structure.
Figure: 19.12. Structural flooring system >
The installation of the floor begins with the laying of a sound-proof layer (Fig. 19.12) directly on the supporting structure of the floor or (if it is uneven) on a dry backfill from finely ground expanded clay sand. In addition, the backfill additionally reduces the level of impact noise by 3-5 dB with a thickness of 3-10 mm. The soundproofing layer separates the noise source from the supporting structure of the floor, the vibrations of which are the cause of the noise in the room. The role of the soundproofing layer is to prevent or dampen these vibrations.
To prevent the formation of sound bridges, the base of the split floor must be reliably isolated not only from the supporting part of the floor, but also from the adjacent building structures (walls, columns). For this purpose, an elastic edge band is attached to the edge along the walls.
The function of attenuation of vibrations of floors in modern design solutions is performed by elasticized (processed by compression) styrene foam with a thickness of 20-30 mm. A decrease in the level of vibrations of rigid supporting structures is achieved due to a significantly lower dynamic modulus of elasticity of the layer of elasticized polystyrene foam.
Along the soundproofing layer, arrange (along the layer of cushioning roofing material) leveling self-leveling or prefabricated screeds that serve as the basis for covering the floor.
Figure 19.13. Floor structures schemes >
Traditionally, a screed made of cement-sand mortar is used, but at present, a mixture of dry gypsum with additives is widely used for the installation of self-leveling screeds, which, after hardening with water, are much faster than cement-sand screed gaining strength. Moreover, gypsum is an environmentally friendly material.
Prefabricated screeds are made of gypsum fiber sheets glued with PVA glue and fastened with special self-tapping screws. A floor covering is laid on the screed in the form of parquet, laminate, linoleum, carpet flooring, ceramic or PVC tiles, etc.
Floors, depending on the type and material of the coating, are divided into:
A) piece - made of piece materials (rivets and parquet boards, ceramic tiles, concrete slabs with a mosaic coating, etc.);
B) rolled - from linoleum, synthetic carpets, relin, etc.
B) self-leveling - concrete, mosaic, cement, asphalt concrete, etc.
Monolithic (seamless) floors... These include cement, terraced, asphalt, xylolite, mastic and adobe floors.
Cement floors arrange from a cement mortar of the composition 1: 1 1: 3 with a layer of 20 mm on a concrete base. These floors are used mainly in non-residential premises, as they are dusty, heat-conducting and non-decorative.
Terrace floors are often arranged in public buildings... They are two-layer - the lower layer with a thickness of at least 15 mm is made of cement rust of vir on a concrete base, and the upper one is made of cement mortar with marble chips of the composition 1: 2. After hardening, the floor is sanded with special machines until a smooth surface is formed, which gives them a beautiful appearance.
Asphalt floors are made in the form of a monolithic layer of cast asphalt with a thickness of 20 ... 25 mm on concrete or compacted crushed stone preparation with a thickness of 100 ... 120 mm. Asphalt floors are laid in basements and sometimes in communication rooms (corridors, staircases, passages, etc.) of public buildings,
Xylolite floors are a coating of a mixture of caustic magnesite, an aqueous solution of magnesium chloride and fine sawdust. They are made according to concrete preparation or reinforced concrete slabs in two layers with a total thickness of 20 mm. Sometimes a dye t is added to the mixture, allowing you to get different colors of the floor covering. Xylolite floors are used in the corridors of residential and public buildings and other dry non-residential premises.
Mastic (self-leveling) floors arranged from synthetic materials. Fine sand with the addition of polyvinyl acetate emulsion, which is a binder, forms a highly durable and elastic floor covering, which has a cost almost two times lower than a linoleum covering. A mastic coating with a thickness of 2 ... 3 mm is arranged over a slag concrete, cement or xylene screed, or over fiberboard or chipboards.
Adobe floors made on compacted soil from a mixture of moist clay with sand and gravel. Their thickness is 120 ... 150 mm. They arrange these floors in the auxiliary rooms of civil buildings, but extremely limited.
Floors made of rolled and piece materials allow to increase the industrialization of construction (Fig. 6.13).
Tiled floors, for the device of which ceramic tiles with a thickness of 10 and 13 mm are used, having a square, rectangular or octagonal shape. They are laid on a concrete base on a cement screed 10 ... 20 mm thick. Carpet mosaic coverings are also used, consisting of small ceramic tiles 6 ... 8 mm thick, 23 x 23 and 28 x 28 mm in size. These coatings are usually delivered to the construction site with cards of 300 x 500 or 500 x 800 mm in size, manufactured at the factory according to a given pattern and glued with tiles with the front side on sheets of thick paper. After laying such cards on the screed, it is moistened with paper upwards warm water and removed, and the joints between the tiles are filled with liquid cement mortar. Ceramic floors are used in sanitary facilities, lobbies on staircases, etc.
Rice, 6.13. Floor constructions:
a - from linoleum, b, k - from ceramic (metlakh) tiles, c, and - parquet, g, l - planks, e - linoleum on a gypsum concrete slab, f, g - from tapiflex, m, n - from chipboards , 1 - compacted soil, 2 - concrete preparation, 3 - cement mortar screed, 4 - a layer of roofing material or roofing felt on mastic, 5 - linoleum, 6 - ceramic tiles, 7 - cement mortar, 8 - parquet, 9 - asphalt, 10 - hot bitumen lubrication, 11 - wooden floor, 12 - log, 13 - two layers of roofing roofing, 14 - brick column, 15 - antiseptic gasket, 16 - lime-crushed stone preparation, 17 - gypsum-concrete slab, 18- floor panel, 19 - soundproof gasket, 20 - tapiflex, 21 - separate overlap of ee vibro-rolled panels, 22 slag concrete, 23 - fibreboard, 24 - adhesive mastic, 25 - monolithic screed, 26 - soundproof layer, 27 - gypsum mortar, 28 - chipboard, 29 - prefabricated screed
Floorings made of polymer tiles of various sizes, based on polyvinyl chloride, phenolic and rubber waste, are widely used. Such tiles are laid on a concrete, asphalt and xylene base or on chipboard or fiberboard and glued with special mastics.
Plank floors are made of 29 mm thick tongue-and-groove boards nailed to the joists. The logs are supported on beams or edges of the floors with the obligatory laying of elastic sound-insulating gaskets, and when arranging the floors of the first floor along the ground, on brick posts with a section of 250 x 250 mm, located at a distance of 800 ... 1000 mm.
There may also be two-layer plank floors, consisting of a sub-floor in the form of a diagonally arranged flooring of unplaned boards and a clean floor of planed tongue-and-groove boards 29 mm thick.
Parquet floors are arranged from small rectangular boards (rivets) made in factories. Parquet floors are laid on a concrete or plank base.
To eliminate the squeak of parquet floors when walking and provide better sound insulation between parquet and wooden base lay a thin cardboard or two layers of thick paper. Industrial parquet floors are made from parquet boards and panels manufactured at the factory.
Wooden slats are laid in a concrete base and parquet rivets are glued to them with waterproof synthetic glue on a phenol-formaldehyde, melanic or resorcinol base.
Floors made of rolled materials are made of synthetic materials: PVC linoleum (fabric-based, baseless, single and multi-layer); polyester (glyphthalic) linoleum (fabric-based); colloxylin (baseless); rubber linoleum - Relina (two-layer material); roll materials on a porous or felt basis.
Linoleum coatings arrange on the bases of boards, solid fiberboard and chipboard or on cement screeds... Linoleum is glued to the base with a special glue based on synthetic, casein or bituminous resins. The base must be carefully prepared, otherwise the linoleum may peel off (local bulges).
In construction, floors from heat and sound insulation linoleum on a soft porous base are increasingly used. Rolls are laid directly on reinforced concrete slabs. This type of coating is very industrial and has good physical, mechanical, hygienic and decorative qualities.
Linoleum floors have good soundproofing properties, arranged over large-sized rolled concrete panels 50 mm thick per room (Fig. 6.14). Panels reinforce timber frame (Fig. 6.14, c), which is a lattice with cells 200 x 200 mm. To ensure sound insulation, the panels are supported on the supporting structures of the floor with the installation of tape sound-insulating gaskets between them with a thickness of at least 25 mm made of soft fibreboard or mineral wool mats. The distance between the spacers is taken up to 600 mm.
The functional purpose of coatings and roofs. Requirements for the coatings of civil buildings.
The roof is designed to remove atmospheric precipitation (rain, snow), as well as to protect the underlying premises from sudden fluctuations in the outside air, wind and sunlight.
In civilian buildings, pitched roofs are arranged - attic and attic. The word "roof" is more common in civil buildings and where it serves as a protective function. When combining the enclosing and bearing functions, the roof can be called a covering.
The shape of the pitched roofs depends on the configuration and architectural features of the building. There are single-slope, gable, four-slope (hip), hip, mansard coverings (Figure 2.21.)
Figure 2.21 Various shapes roofs. a - general sectional view; b - four-slope; в - gable; g-tent; d - attic; w – single slope.
Coatedis called a set of structural elements that complete a building and protect it from the external environment. The planes of the coatings are inclined to drain atmospheric water and form slopes. There are the following types of coatings:
· - by the value of the slope: pitched, with a slope of more than 10 °; flat with a slope of less than 10 °;
· - according to a constructive solution: attic, semi-walk-through (with an attic height of 1-1.2 m), with a micro-attic, attic (combined);
- according to operating conditions:
· - roof-terraces intended for placing on them sports grounds, solariums, gardens, etc .;
· - roofs - "bathtubs", filled with water in the summer and thereby reducing overheating of the premises upper floors;
· - unexploited, arranged in most civil buildings.
Building coverings must meet the requirements:
· - waterproof and weatherproof;
· - strength and stability;
· - durability, fire resistance;
· - industrialism;
· - efficiency.
By design, flat coatings are: attic, from semi walk-through attics and attic(fig. 2.22, 2.23). The latter have an increased cost, but the attic (technical floor) is used to accommodate ventilation shafts, utilities and to monitor the condition of the coating. For safe operation, fences are arranged on flat surfaces.
Operated roof terraces arrange, as a rule, over rooftop roofs with roll waterproofing. The floor of the terrace roof has a horizontal surface, and the roof has a slope of up to 25%. The floor of the maintained roofs serves protective layer for waterproofing. It is made of stone or reinforced concrete (sometimes lined ceramic tiles) slabs, loosely laid on reinforced concrete pads, installed on the roof on asphalt beacons or on a layer of quartz sand with a thickness of at least 30 mm. For waterproofing roof-terraces, the most durable roll materials (waterproofing, etc.) are used, and the number of insulation layers is assigned to one more than with unexploited roofs. A continuous 2 mm layer of hot mastic is applied on the surface of the roll carpet. Bituminous mastics are antiseptic with herbicides that prevent the germination of plants from seeds and spores accidentally brought to the roof. The coatings can be insulated and cold.
The coverings of industrial buildings are both flat and pitched with a slope of 5 to 30%. Flat coatings can be cooled in summer for this purpose they are filled with water for 50-100mm.
The drainage of combined coatings can be:
· - unorganized - with free water discharge along the roof overhang; it is used as the cheapest in buildings up to three floors, but it leads to moistening of the walls, the formation of ice and icicles on the cornice;
· - outdoor organized - with a slope of the roof towards the outer walls and with a system of gutters and downpipes;
· - internally organized - with a slope of the roof towards the water intake funnels with risers that drain water into the storm sewer.
The following basic requirements are imposed on coatings. The design of the pavement must ensure the perception of a constant load (from its own weight), as well as temporary loads (from snow, wind and arising during the operation of the pavement). The enclosing part of the coating (roof), which serves to drain precipitation, must be waterproof, moisture-resistant, resistant to the effects of aggressive chemicals contained in the atmospheric air and falling in the form of precipitation on the coating, solar radiation and frost, not to be subjected to warping, cracking and melting. Coating structures must have a degree of durability consistent with the norms and class of the building.
Important requirements for coatings are the cost-effectiveness of their construction and the provision of minimal expenditure of funds for their operation. Of particular importance is the use of industrial methods for the construction of coatings, which reduces labor costs at the construction site and improves the quality of construction and installation work.
To ensure the drainage of sediments, the coatings are arranged with a slope. The slope depends on the roof material, as well as the climatic conditions of the construction area. Thus, in areas with heavy snowfall, the slope is determined by the conditions of snow deposition and snow removal; in areas with heavy rains, the slope of the roof should ensure rapid drainage of water; in the southern regions, the slope of the coating, as well as the choice of roofing material, are determined taking into account solar radiation.
Stair constructions
1. Stairs on steel beams:
Perform with reinforced concrete steps. Steps made of natural stone, such as granite, are used mainly for outdoor stairs and for stairs with particularly heavy traffic (Fig. 105, 106).
2. Reinforced concrete stairs:
Monolithic reinforced concrete stairs: These stairs are very durable, but require complex formwork and delay construction progress. Therefore, they are used very rarely.
Prefabricated reinforced concrete: ladder made of small-sized elements: the connection is achieved by welding the embedded elements. The steps are laid along the stringers on the cement mortar. Railings made of steel posts (embedded in steps) and inclined gratings.
Reinforced concrete stairs made of large-sized elements are very widespread. Elements (flights and platforms made at the factory) of stairs are installed by crane in place and fastened by welding embedded parts .. Such stairs are made either with textured surfaces of steps and platforms or with overhead treads (Fig. 106, 107, 109).
The stairwells should not contain storage or other premises, exits from lift hoists, industrial gas pipelines and pipelines with flammable liquids.
For a sufficient passage in the staircase, the floor level of the 1st floor is raised above the floor level of the entrance platform by 0.5-1.0 m (Fig. 101).
Basic requirements for stairs
This is traffic safety and ease of walking on them. For this purpose, in addition to ensuring the strength and rigidity of structures, a number of rules must be observed when designing stairs.
The slope of the march should be taken according to SNiP (depending on the purpose and number of storeys of the building) for the main stairs 1: 2 - 1: 1.75, and for the auxiliary ones up to 1: 1.25; all steps in the march must have the same size, comfortable for walking. And marches should be unified whenever possible. The number of steps in the march is assigned no more than 18, but not less than three. Usually marches have from 10 to 13 steps.
Marches and platforms are fenced with 0.9 m high railings; the height of the passages under the platforms and marches is made at least 2m; staircases should have natural light.
The width of flights of stairs is taken according to fire safety requirements at the rate of at least 0.6m per 100 people. Where there are elevators, the requirements are different.
The width of the landing of the staircase must be at least the width of the march.
For residential floors of 10 or more floors, there must be at least two escape routes, or so-called "smoke-free staircases" must be installed.
The smoke-free staircase is ensured by the creation of an open air zone in the form of a balcony or loggia at the entrance to it, which prevents the spread of smoke to other floors of buildings. In this case, instead of two conventional stairs, one smoke-free staircase can be designed (Fig. 111).
Another technique: creating an artificial air pressure to prevent the penetration of smoke into the stairwell; removable stairs are communicated through a cold airlock.
In the staircase, the outer entrance doors open towards the exit from the building. Entrance doors to apartments fromstairs should open inward.
The steps of the stairs are subdivided into ordinary and frieze, adjacent to the platforms; upper and lower frieze steps.
The horizontal plane is called the tread, the vertical one is the riser. Step height 130-200mm, width not less than 250mm.
Strength and reliability of prefabricated mates reinforced concrete structures stairs is achieved by welding embedded parts, which are placed in the connected elements, respectively, one against the other.
Internal staircases are made of wood. Individual steps are laid on the stringers or cut into the bowstrings, starting with the lower frieze and ending with the upper frieze. Ladder railings are also made of wood.
In intra-apartment staircases, the device of run-in steps and spiral staircases is allowed.
Firefighters and emergency ladders in public and residential buildings are taken out.
Fire escapes to the roof are made straight and not brought to ground level by 2.5 m. The width of fire escapes is taken at least 0.6 m.
Emergency ladders are structurally similar to firefighters, but additional requirements are imposed on them: the slope of the ladders should be no more than 45 °; the width is taken at least 0.7 m. Special areas are provided on each floor.
Ladders from small-sized elements (Fig. 10.3) consist of separately installed reinforced concrete prefabricated platform beams, precast reinforced concrete stringers, steps, reinforced concrete platform slabs and fences with handrails. To mate the stringers with the platform beams, the latter have nests into which the ends of the stringers are inserted. The connection between the elements of stairs is achieved, as a rule, by welding embedded parts. The steps are laid along the kosoura in cement mortar.
Figure: 183. Monolithic spatial blocks: a - "cap" type; b - “glass” type; в - type "pipe"; г - unit of blocks of the "glass" type; 1 - floor panel; 2 - ceiling panel; 3 - volumetric block; 4 - key; 5 - solution; 6 - harness "isol" on mastic "isol"
Rice, 184. Structures of building joints from prefabricated volumetric elements: a and b - vertical joints; b - horizontal joint; 1 - seam sealant; 2 - plastic strip; 3 - plastic apron; 4 - expanded clay concrete; 5 - tarred rope; 6 - cement mortar; 7 - glassine or rubber tube; 8 - a strip of foam; 9 - plait made of poroizol; 10 - sealing paste; 11 - roofing material
Some solutions for such joints are shown in Fig. 184.
In prefabricated volumetric elements, all six faces of the block are made mainly of frequently ribbed panels manufactured in factories. The panels are connected by welding the embedded parts.
When assembling buildings from volumetric elements, elastic insulating gaskets are placed on the lower ones in the places where the upper blocks are supported. The blocks are connected to each other by welding embedded parts.
The most important part of the building from large volumetric blocks is the outer seam at the junction, a poor solution or implementation of which may entail blowing and leaking walls.
At present, the joint has been improved by the introduction of sealing gaskets, plastic strips and aprons into the joint (Fig. 184, a, b).
Benefits.
In prestressed structures, it is possible to use high-cost, high-strength bar reinforcement and high-strength wire reinforcement, allowing on average to reduce the consumption of scarce steel in construction by up to 50%. Pre-compression of the stretched zones of concrete significantly delays the moment of cracking in the stretched zones of the elements, limits the width of their opening and increases the rigidity of the elements, practically without affecting their strength.
Prestressed structures are often economical for buildings and structures with spans, loads and operating conditions in which the use of reinforced concrete structures without prestressing is technically impossible or causes excessive consumption of concrete and steel to provide the required rigidity and bearing capacity of structures. The use of prestressing allows the most efficient way to perform the joints of prefabricated structural elements, compressing them with prestressing reinforcement. At the same time, the consumption of additional metal in the joints is significantly reduced or the need for its use is completely eliminated.
Prestressing makes it possible to expand the use of precast and precast-monolithic composite flow structures, in which high-strength concrete is used only in pre-fabricated prestressed elements, and the main or significant part of the structures is made of heavy or lightweight concrete not subjected to prestressing.
The prestressing, which increases the resistance of structures to the formation of cracks, increases their endurance when working under the influence of repeated loads. This is due to a decrease in the stress drop in reinforcement and concrete caused by a change in the magnitude of the external load. Correctly designed prestressed structures are safe in operation, as they show significant deflections before destruction, warning of the emergency state of structures.
With an increase in the percentage of reinforcement, the seismic resistance of prestressed structures in many cases increases (especially with T-sections with a flange in the compressed zone and lightweight concrete). This is due to the fact that, due to the use of stronger and lighter materials, sections of prestressed structures in most cases turn out to be smaller in comparison with reinforced concrete structures without prestressing the same bearing capacity, and, therefore, more flexible and lightweight. The increase in seismic resistance is also facilitated by the spatial work of buildings and structures as a whole, obtained by compression of their individual parts with prestressed reinforcement. The most earthquake-resistant are stressed structures with a significant excess of the bearing capacity over the crack resistance limit.
Disadvantages. Prestressed structures are characterized by increased complexity of design and manufacture. They require greater care in the calculation and design, in the manufacture, storage, transportation and installation, since even before the application of external loads in the sections of their elements, unacceptable compressive or tensile stresses can occur, which can lead to emergency condition... For example, at the ends of prestressed structures with a concentrated and uneven application of compression forces, longitudinal cracks may appear, which significantly reduce them. bearing capacity... If you do not take into account the specific features of the creation of prestressing, then the operating conditions under the load of the entire structure or its individual parts may deteriorate.
The large forces transmitted by the prestressing reinforcement to the concrete of the structure at the time of release of the tensioning devices can lead to its complete destruction during the compression process or local damage, to slipping of the prestressing reinforcement due to the violation of its adhesion to concrete. Therefore, the norms require it to be mandatory to carefully check the strength of prestressed structures at the stage of compression, during storage, transportation and installation, and to comply with the stipulated design requirements. Prestressed structures require more complexity and an increase in the metal consumption of the formwork, the labor intensity of reinforcement, and an increase in the consumption of metal for embedded parts and for assembly fittings.
Due to the use of materials of increased strength, the mass of prestressed structures turns out to be significantly less than the mass of reinforced concrete structures without prestressing, however, it remains higher than the mass of metal and especially wooden structures... The widespread introduction into the practice of construction of structures made of lightweight and cellular concrete, reinforced cement, openwork thin-walled spatial, mesh and hanging structures makes it possible to significantly bring the mass of prestressed structures closer to the mass of metal structures.
The high heat and sound conductivity of reinforced concrete requires a more complex structure and additional use of gaskets made of heat and sound insulating materials.
Reinforcement of prestressed structures is not more difficult than reinforcing reinforced concrete structures, but much more difficult than reinforcing steel and especially wooden structures. Reinforcement of prestressed structures is very complex, labor-intensive and costly.
Prestressed structures are non-combustible, but their fire resistance is lower than the fire resistance of reinforced concrete structures without prestressing. This is due to the fact that the critical temperatures to which the safe heating of prestressed reinforcement is possible are lower compared to non-stressed reinforcement. For example, the strength of a high-strength wire subjected to cold working (having a work-hardening), starting from a temperature of 200 ° C, significantly decreases and at 600 ° C is about 2/3 of the initial strength. Reinforcement bars of a periodic profile, strengthened by drawing, lose work hardening at temperatures above 400 ° C. Thus, in case of a fire, the fire resistance of prestressed structures will be ensured if the critical temperature for this type of reinforcement is not exceeded. This can only be achieved by increasing the concrete cover.
The topic of today's conversation will be the consideration of structural elements of civil buildings. Usually, we consider the structural elements of a building separately.
I wanted to put everything together and describe all the structural elements of buildings for a more complete representation of this concept. The building contains an internal space that is designed and adapted for human activities.
All building elements can be divided into enclosing (separating the premises from the external space or one from the other), carriers (perceiving loads acting in the building) and the elements combining these two functions.
Foundation - a structure that takes all the load from the structure with its transfer to the ground.
Walls in the building — outdoor or internal are a vertical fence. They are subdivided:
- load-bearing walls - carry the entire load from the floor, roof, other building structures and, together with their own weight, transfer it to the foundations;
- self-supporting walls - rest on the foundation and bear their own weight;
- curtain walls (hinged) - are only fences and are based on floor by floor on other elements of the structure;
Overlappings - horizontal barriers dividing the entire interior space into floors, as well as load bearing permanent - own weight, and useful (equipment, objects, weight of people). In addition, ceilings connect the walls, thereby increasing their stability, significantly increasing the spatial rigidity of the structure. The overlaps are called:
- interfloorif they share adjacent floors;
- upper or attic (if there is an attic) when the upper floor is overlapped;
- lowerseparating the lower floor from the underground;
Separate supports - vertical load-bearing elements of columns, pillars, racks transmitting all the load from the floor, other structural elements of civil buildings directly to the foundation. Ceilings are sometimes based directly on the columns, but according to the rules, on special powerful beams mounted on them, called a crossbar or a purlin. The crossbars and supports located inside the structure form the frame of the structure.
Roof Is a structure that protects the structure from above from wind, overheating by the sun's rays, and atmospheric precipitation. It consists of a waterproof layer - the roof and the supporting elements that support it. The roof and the attic floor together form a complex structure called covering, also related to structural elements.
Coating there are:
- attic - when between the cold roof and the insulated attic floor there is a space called the attic;
- attic - when the attic floor and the attic are absent, then the roof of the heated buildings is insulated. An example of a non-attic roofing is a combined roof, in which the roof and the top floor are combined into one common structure.
Partitions - non-load-bearing internal walls that rest on the floor and divide the floor area into different rooms.
Ladders - structural elements of a building intended for communication between floors within it. They are:
- external - for the quick evacuation of people from the building;
- internal, which, according to fire safety requirements, are located in spaces enclosed by walls - staircases;
Window — are intended for room ventilation and lighting.
Doors - serve to separate one room from another. The front door is designed to protect a room or apartment from intruders.
Other structural elements - balconies, canopies over the door, pits at the basement windows, etc. - they all fulfill their function.
I have photographed and am posting a photo of the residential complex, the construction of which I supervised.
I have briefly described the structural elements of civil buildings and introduced you to each separately. Now, even if you are not a builder, you can easily understand construction terminology.
SECTION 1.Structural elements of civil
buildings
1.1. Concepts of buildings and structures
Any significant building of various types and purposes, recognized administratively as suitable for use for a specific purpose, corresponding to the land allocation and design documentation, is called a structure or structure. The concept of "building" is also included in the variety of buildings (structures).
A building is a terrestrial structure that has an internal space intended for a certain type of human activity.
In practice, everything that is not related to buildings is usually called engineering structures. They mainly perform purely technical functions. These include: bridges, tunnels, metro stations, television and radio transmission masts, cooling towers, chimneys, towers, reservoirs, monuments, obelisks, etc.
By their functional purpose, buildings are divided into:
Civil (residential and public), designed to meet the household needs and social activities of people;
Industrial, designed for a variety of industrial activities;
Agricultural, intended for various branches of agricultural production.
Buildings protect the environment within themselves from the effects of adverse environmental factors (temperature, solar radiation, wind, atmospheric precipitation) and create a certain indoor microclimate corresponding to the type of human activity (Fig. 1.1).
1.2. Structural elements of civil buildings
All structural elements of a building can be divided into:
Fencing, separating the room from the external space, or one from the other;
Load-bearing bearing loads acting in the building;
Combining both of these functions.
Each building consists of separate interconnected parts (structural elements) with a specific purpose. The main structural elements of a civil building are:
Foundations;
Figure: 1.1. Scheme of the interaction of the environment with the microclimate
premises
Separate supports;
stairs;
partitions;
windows, doors, balconies and loggias.
overlapping;
The axonometric section of the building (Fig. 1.2) shows its main structural elements.
Foundations - this is underground structurethat takes all the load from the building and transfers it to the base.
Walls Are the vertical structural elements of the building. Depending on the location in the building, the walls are divided into external and internal. External walls shield the premises from the external environment. Internal walls divide the floor space into separate rooms and are subdivided into longitudinal and transverse. Depending on the structural system
Figure: 1.2. Civil building and its elements:
1 - foundation; 2, - outer wall; 3 - inner wall; 4 - base;
5 - interfloor overlap; 6 - attic floor; 7 - partition; 8 - roof; 9 - stairs; 10 - basement floor; 11 - pit; 12 - entrance to the building; 13 - balcony; 14 - dormer windows
buildings and the nature of static work, external walls are subdivided into load-bearing, self-supporting and non-load-bearing (hinged), and internal - into load-bearing and self-supporting (partitions).
Load-bearing walls - these are structures that receive loads from their own weight, the weights of the overlying structures of all floors of the building (floors, roofs) resting on them, wind loads. All these loads are transferred by the walls to the foundation (Fig. 1.3 a).
Self-supporting walls are structures that are also based on foundations, but bearing the load only from the own weight of all floors of the building and the load from wind pressure (Fig. 1.3 a).
Non-bearing (curtain) walls are structures that take the load from their own weight, wind load only within one floor or
Figure: 1.3 Classification of walls by the nature of static work:
a - bearing and self-supporting; b - mounted; 1 - bearing brick;
2 - self-supporting; 3 - floor panels; 4 - curtain panel wall; 5 - column; 6 - crossbars
their height and transmitting them to the supporting elements of the building (racks, columns, pillars, crossbars, strapping beams, floors) (Fig. 1.3 b).
Partitions are internal self-supporting walls, dividing the floor space into separate rooms and resting on the ceilings.
Separate supports Are load-bearing vertical elements (posts, columns, pillars) that transfer the load from floors and other building elements to the foundation. In this case, the floors are supported by beams or crossbars, and the latter, in turn, are supported by columns. Separate supports, crossbars and ceilings located inside the building form the spatial frame of the building.
Overlapping - these are horizontal fences dividing the internal space of the building into floors and bearing loads, both constant (from their own weight) and temporary (from the weight of people, objects and equipment) and transmitting it to supporting horizontal and vertical structures. Depending on the location in the building, the floors are divided into:
Interfloor - dividing adjacent floors;
Attic - covering the upper floor and separating it from the attic;
Combined (coverings) - overlapping the upper floor and combined with the roof;
Basement - separating the lower floor from the underground or basement.
Roofis a structure that performs a load-bearing and enclosing function, protecting the building from above from precipitation, wind and overheating by the sun's rays. It consists of a waterproof shell - a roof and supporting elements.
Roofs are attic - having an attic space between the roof and the ceiling of the upper floor, and non-attic (combined), in which the upper ceiling and the roof are combined into one structure. In the latter case, the top floor is called a cover.
Stairs - these are structures used for communication between floors, as well as for evacuation in case of emergency. There are internal and external staircases (Figure 1.2).
Window - is a structural element of a building designed for lighting, insolation and ventilation of the room.
Doors - these are movable enclosing structures intended for communication between horizontally adjacent rooms (internal doors), as well as external ones, providing entry and exit from the building.
Balcony is an open area with a fence, protruding beyond the plane outer wall (Figure 1.4 a).
Loggias is an open space adjacent to the outer side of the outer wall and fenced on three sides (except for the facade) with walls and railing along the facade (Fig. 1.4 b). According to their location relative to the plane of the building wall (Fig. 1.4 c), the loggias are subdivided:
Western, completely located within the building's dimensions;
Partially sinking, partially recessed inside the building;
Suspended (external), completely protruding beyond the plane of the facade.
Figure: 1.4. General view of the balcony and loggia:
A - balcony; B - loggia; B - types of loggias: B-1 - western; B-2 - partially sinking; B-3 - hinged; 1 - bearing reinforced concrete slab; 2 - the walls of the loggia; 3 - balconies and balconies
Bay window is a part of the living room removed from the plane of the facade, fenced outside wall with window openings. In terms of plan, bay windows can be rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular (Fig. 1.5). Bay windows can start from the first floor or occupy one or more floors in height.
Figure: 1.5. General form different types bay windows:
a - bay window combined with a balcony; b - bay window for the entire height of the building;
c - triangular bay window on several floors
Visor.Above the entrances to the buildings, visors are arranged to protect the entrance doors and the entrance area from rain and snow. The visor is usually a reinforced concrete slab, which, with small overhangs, is embedded and anchored in the wall masonry or rests on supports (Fig. 1.6).
Pits... To illuminate and ventilate basements in their outer basement walls, windows are arranged at or below ground level, and in front of the windows there are wells called pits (Fig. 1.2).
Figure: 1.6. Visor over the entrance to the building
Entrances to basement floors. The entrances are usually arranged in the form of one-flight staircases open to the outside, located in special pits adjacent to the outer wall of the building and fenced off with a retaining wall (Figure 1.7 a). To protect from atmospheric precipitation, such a pit is most often covered with a roof or fenced off with an extension that has not only a roof, but also light walls (Fig. 1.7 b).
Figure 1.7. Outside entrance to the basement:
a - open; b - with a closed extension
A building is an artificial ground structure or interior space designed and adapted for human activity. Structure - an artificial structure intended purely for technical purposes (posts, chimneys, towers, treatment facilities, etc.).
Any building is a volume, limited in space by rectilinear or curved surfaces and divided inside into separate cells - rooms. Theoretically, any building can be represented as a combination of three groups of elements: space-planning (ie, separate rooms in three dimensions); constructive, representing the material basis of the building (building or architectural structures); construction products and parts ( component building structures). The space-planning elements depicted in the plan are called architectural-planning elements (in two dimensions).
A room is a part of the volume of a building bounded by the floor, ceiling and surrounding walls or partitions. Each room is intended specifically for certain purposes and, in accordance with this, has its own shape and size in plan, height, lighting (natural, artificial or combined), connection with the external environment, surface finishing, etc.
There are main, auxiliary and technical premises (for placing equipment and utilities). The types of premises are vestibule, corridor, light pocket, elevator hall.
Tambour - a passageway at the entrance to the building to protect the room from cold outside air. There are single and double vestibules.
A corridor is an extended room in the plan, which unites a group of rooms and serves to evacuate people from the building.
Light pocket - a room directly adjacent to the corridor with natural light.
Elevator hall - a room in front of the entrances to the elevator cabins, usually isolated from the rest of the floor.
Room height - the vertical distance from the level of the finished floor of this room to the ceiling plane or to the bottom of protruding structures from the ceiling plane (if the ceiling surface has protruding ribs or volumetric elements).
A group of premises for various purposes, located in one plane, forms a floor. A floor consists of a set of rooms, the floors of which are approximately at the same level. By location, the floors are subdivided into aboveground and underground. If the level of the finished floor is located above the level of the blind area, sidewalk or graded ground surface, the floor is considered Aboveground. Accordingly, a building can consist of only one floor (one-story building) or have several floors arranged vertically (multi-story building). The number of storeys of a building is determined by the number of above-ground floors. If necessary, the buildings provide for floors, the floors of which are located below the level of the blind area, sidewalk or planned ground surface (underground floors). Levels of clean floors of floors are marked with a special mark.
By designation Above-ground floors are subdivided into residential, mezzanine, attic, attic and technical. For communication between floors, stairs, ramps (inclined planes), elevators, escalators are provided. The size and number of stair treads in multi-storey buildings is determined by the floor height.
Residential floors Intended for living or staying of people (placement of apartments in residential buildings, offices, offices, etc.).
The mezzanine floor (French Entresol) is an upper mezzanine built into the main floor. Typical for mansions and manor houses of the 18th - first half of the 19th century. Currently, it is provided in individual residential buildings, in buildings of shopping centers, offices, etc.
An attic is a walk-through or semi-walk-through space within the roof.
The attic floor (French Mansarde - From the surname of the French architect F. Mansart) is a room arranged inside a free attic space by insulating the enclosing structures of the attic (high roof slopes). It is used in new construction, during reconstruction.
Technical floor - a floor used for placing engineering equipment and laying communications. The technical floor can be located under the building (technical underground), above the top floor of the building (technical attic), in one or more middle floors.
The underground floors are divided into technical undergrounds, basement and basement floors.
Technical undergrounds are walk-through or semi-walk-through floors for placing engineering communications with a floor level below the planned level of the ground or sidewalk. The minimum height of the premises at the passages is 1.6 m.
Basement floors have a floor level below the planned level of the ground or sidewalk, recessed no more than half the height of the room.
Basement floors are designed with a floor level recessed below the planned level of the ground or sidewalk by more than half the height of the room. A building may have several basement floors.
tolassification of civil buildings.
Civil buildings are divided into residential and public buildings. Residential buildings include apartment buildings; hostels; hotels; boarding houses, etc.
The number of public buildings includes buildings designed for all types of social and everyday life of people. Public buildings serving the daily needs of people include kindergartens, nurseries, schools, shops, cafes, canteens, consumer services, etc. Public buildings of occasional visits include theaters and cinemas, museums, large restaurants, stadiums, palaces of culture and sports.
Civil buildings are distinguished by number of storeys:
Low-rise (up to 2 floors);
Mid-rise (3-5 floors);
Increased number of storeys (6-9 floors);
Multi-storey (10-25 floors);
High-rise (more than 25 floors).
Buildings are classified according to the main wall material: stone, concrete, reinforced concrete, metal, wood.
By the method of construction: from small-sized elements; from large-sized elements; monolithic.
By fire resistance, buildings are divided into five levels:
The I degree includes buildings whose bearing and enclosing structures are made of stone, concrete or reinforced concrete with the use of sheet and slab non-combustible materials.
In buildings of the II degree it is allowed to use unprotected steel structures of coatings.
In buildings of the III degree, bearing and enclosing structures are made of stone, concrete and reinforced concrete materials with the use of non-combustible materials.
The IV degree of fire resistance includes wooden buildings with protection against fire and high temperatures (plaster, sheet or plate non-combustible materials).
There are no requirements for fire resistance and fire propagation limits for Y grade building structures.
Buildings are classified according to their durability, which is determined by the period of preservation of the performance of the main structural elements. Buildings are subdivided into three degrees of durability: I degree - service life is more than 100 years; II - within 50-100 years; III - less than 20 years.
Buildings are divided into four classes of capital depending on their purpose and significance. Each class has its own degree of durability, fire resistance, livability, quality of finishing and the degree of equipment with engineering and sanitary systems.
The first class includes buildings that meet increased requirements; to the second - average, to the third and fourth - average, reduced and minimum requirements. First class buildings are not limited in number of storeys; the maximum number of storeys in buildings of the second class is 9, of the third - 5, of the fourth - 2.
Requirements for civil buildings.
The type of architectural structure depends on its functional purpose, the number and composition of premises, the way they are grouped and sizes. The types of buildings did not take shape immediately, they were determined by the political structure of the country, religion, way of life, and folk traditions. Some types of buildings died out, new ones appeared, others (for example, residential buildings) were modified. Architecture created an artificial, utilitarian-artistic world opposed to the natural environment, assimilated space to meet the material and spiritual needs of man.
The aesthetic value of the building is determined by the expressive solution of its external and internal appearance. The artistically expressive appearance of the building is created by general compositional architectural forms (external and internal volumes, grouping of masses, silhouette, proportions, etc.) and forms that are specific in relation to the entire composition of the building (cornices, balconies, window and door frames, decorative elements) ...
The nature of the building structure largely depends on the technological characteristics of the building materials and changes as they develop.
The final result of the development of architectural culture within one era and one direction is usually called an architectural style. The architectural style has stable features that are repeated many times in various buildings and structures: technical - in the form of applied structural systems; artistic - in the form of architectural and artistic elements for the decoration of facades and interiors; ethnographic - in the form of elements symbolizing the ethnic traits of the ethnos.
In modern conditions, functional, technical, sanitary and hygienic, architectural and artistic, operational, fire-prevention, environmental, economic, and construction-technological requirements are imposed on civil buildings, regardless of their purpose.
Functional requirements They consist in the fact that the space-planning and structural solutions of the building must correspond to its purpose, the necessary composition and parameters of individual rooms, to provide the best conditions for the technological process taking place in the building. At the same time, it is necessary to provide for the possibility of redeveloping the premises in the future in connection with changes in requirements or the technological process taking place in the building. Accordingly, the building must provide safe and comfortable conditions for living or other activities of people.
Technical requirements Provide for the compliance of building structures and their interfaces with the laws of structural mechanics, physics and chemistry, taking into account loads and influences, including climatic, geological, as well as the characteristics of the internal environment in the building.
Sanitary and hygienic requirements Include a set of measures to ensure the microclimate of the premises (temperature, permissible level of noise, humidity, air speed in the premises, illumination and insolation), the presence of special rooms and equipment.
Architectural and artistic requirements They are manifested in the aesthetically meaningful formation of the external (exterior) and internal (interior) appearance of the building. The appearance and interiors of premises should have an emotional impact on a person, create a good mood.
Operational requirements for premises and structures are stipulated in the design assignment in accordance with their purpose, features of both the external and internal environment, the specified service life, the required composition of engineering equipment in the building (the presence of elevators, heating and ventilation systems, water supply and sewerage systems, etc.). ).
Fire safety requirements include a set of measures to ensure the safety of people during the operation of the building, timely and unhindered evacuation of people in case of fire, protect building structures from fire and prevent the spread of fire. Buildings are subdivided according to the degree of fire resistance, classes of structural and functional fire hazard in accordance with SNiP "Fire safety of buildings and structures".
Environmental requirements stipulate the elimination of the harmful effects of the technological process taking place in the building on the environment or on the human body, as well as the safety of building materials and products during operation, as well as during dismantling or reconstruction of the building.
Economic requirements take into account both the initial costs for the construction of the building (engineering surveys, pre-project preparation, design and construction), and operational during the pre-agreed life of the building (as a rule, they account for up to 80% of all costs), the costs of dismantling and utilization of building structures.
Construction and technological requirements in the development of projects reflect the capabilities of the construction organization and the methods of work, which is taken into account when developing space-planning and design solutions.
In addition to the listed requirements, in each specific case, especially during the reconstruction or restoration of buildings, additional requirements may be specified. Their list is usually given in the design assignment.
Planning schemes of civil buildings.
Civil buildings are classified according to a number of characteristics. Depending on their purpose, they are divided into residential and public. In turn, each of the selected groups is classified according to specific functional characteristics.
Civil buildings are classified as mass-built buildings and unique buildings. Buildings of mass construction are being built in large numbers according to standard designs to meet the basic needs of people (residential buildings, schools, kindergartens, clinics, etc.). Unique buildings that are of great public importance are erected according to individual projects, as a rule, in a single version, for example, theaters, museums, palaces of culture, universities, government buildings, and some residential buildings.
In terms of number of storeys, civil buildings are conventionally divided into five groups:
Low-rise - up to 2 floors;
Mid-rise - 3 - 5 floors;
Increased number of storeys - 6 - 9 floors;
Multi-storey - 10-25 floors;
High-rise - more than 25 floors.
The floors of civil buildings are called: aboveground - when the floor of the premises is not lower than the planning level of the earth; basement, or semi-basement, - when the floor of the premises is below the planning level of the earth, but not more than half the height of the premises; basements - when the floor of the premises is below the planning level of the earth by more than half the height of the premises; attic - when the premises are located in the volume of the attic. When determining the number of storeys of a building, only the above-ground floors are taken into account.
Planning solutions for civil buildings are very diverse, as they reflect various functional processes taking place in certain conditions. However, this variety of solutions comes down to just how many planning schemes: cell, hall and their combinations (combined).
The cell scheme is used in those buildings where relatively small rooms of the same area are needed. The cell scheme can be solved according to the corridor, enfilade, centric (non-corridor) and sectional planning schemes.
The corridor planning scheme is characterized by the arrangement of premises on both sides of the corridor. With a one-sided arrangement of the premises, the layout is called a gallery. Communication between rooms is carried out through a corridor or gallery. The corridor scheme is widely used in various civil buildings: dormitories, hotels, boarding schools, administrative, educational, treatment-and-prophylactic, etc.
The enfilade planning scheme provides for a direct connection of adjacent rooms located in series, one after another. The enfilade scheme, formerly common in residential, palace and religious buildings, has limited application: museums and exhibition pavilions, commercial buildings.
The centric planning scheme provides for a clearly defined one main large room, and secondary, smaller areas are grouped around it. Examples of this scheme are spectacular buildings - theaters, cinemas, concert halls, circuses.
The sectional layout scheme includes a number of repeating and isolated parts-sections. Within a section, rooms can be located according to different planning schemes. This scheme is most often used in apartment buildings.
The hall layout is typical for buildings consisting of one room per floor - markets, exhibition pavilions, sports facilities, garages, etc.
The combined scheme is based on a combination of cell and hall schemes. In it, large halls are grouped with smaller rooms. In multifunctional and complex buildings and complexes, as a rule, several planning schemes are combined.
The premises of civil buildings are divided into several groups according to their role in the functional process (rest, work, study).
The main ones correspond to the main functions of the building (living rooms of residential buildings, classrooms and classrooms, auditoriums of theaters and cinemas, sales areas of shops).
Auxiliary - designed to provide the basic functions of the building, but do not define them (conference rooms, archives, lobbies and lobbies of theaters, utility rooms of shops, museums, etc.).
Servants - increase comfort and sanitary and hygienic conditions, but are not directly related to the main function of the building (lobbies, halls, sanitary facilities, buffets of public buildings).
Communication - necessary for connections within the building (stairs, elevators, escalators, corridors, galleries).
Technical (sometimes entire floors) - designed to accommodate engineering and technical equipment (elevator engine rooms, waste collection chambers, ventilation and air conditioning rooms).
Foundations are the lower load-bearing parts of a building that take all the loads from the building and transfer them to the ground. The main body of the foundation is called the body of the foundation, the lower, usually broadened part is called a pillow, the lower surface of the foundation is called the sole, and the upper, protruding on the sides of the walls, horizontal planes are cutoffs.
Walls are vertical structures located outside and inside the building. Walls resting on the foundation and bearing the load from their own weight and other structures (from floors, coatings, etc.) are called load-bearing. Walls can be self-supporting if they transfer to the foundation only the wind load and their own weight across all floors of the building. Walls are called load-bearing or curtain walls when they serve only as fences, take their own weight and wind loads within one floor and transfer them to the floor-by-floor supporting structures. Internal partitions are also curtain walls, while curtain walls are panel walls of frame buildings.
The lower part of the wall, located directly above the foundation, is called the plinth. The plinth can protrude or sink relative to the outer plane of the wall. The top of the plinth is usually at the level of the ground floor.
The upper part of the wall usually ends with a cornice, which is a horizontal profiled ledge that protects the building wall from precipitation. The size of the ledge of the cornice is called the removal of the cornice.
Above the eaves, a parapet is sometimes made - a low wall that serves as a roof fence. Openings in walls for windows and doors are called openings, and filling them with window and door blocks.
A lintel is a structure that covers the opening from above and supports the overlying part of the wall.
The piers are the sections of the wall located between the openings, and the recesses in the wall are niches.
Stand-alone supports are pillars, pillars, or columns that support the floors, roof, and sometimes walls. Columns in combination with horizontal structural elements (girders and girders) form an internal supporting frame in frame buildings.
Slabs are horizontal structures that divide the interior space of buildings into: floors. Slabs take the load from people and equipment and transfer it to walls or individual supports. They provide spatial invariability of the building, like horizontal stiffening diaphragms. Overlappings are subdivided into, inter-floor, dividing adjacent floors in height, attic, separating the upper floor from the attic, above the basements, separating the first floor from the basement and the lower ones, separating the first floor from the underground. The upper surface of the floor slab is called the floor, the lower surface is called the ceiling.
The roof protects the building from precipitation. It consists of a roof (waterproof shell), a base for a roof (battens, flooring or concrete preparation) and a supporting structure (rafters or reinforced concrete panels). The roof together with the attic floor forms the covering of the building.
The gently sloping roofs in which the roof is combined with the structure of the attic floor are called combined roofs.
To drain water, the roof must have a slope that depends on the roof material. The slope of the roof is denoted by the ratio of the rise to half the overlapping width of the building body e / 2 or the angle of inclination of the roof to the horizon. Depending on the slope, flat and pitched roofs are distinguished.
The intersection of the slopes is called an edge, and downward - a gutter or valley.
Horizontally located ribs are called roof ridge.
The upper part of the end wall of a gable roof, forming a triangle bounded by two slopes and a horizontal cornice, is called a pediment, and if there is no horizontal cornice, then the triangular section of the wall is called a gable.
Stairs are used for vertical communication between floors and the territory adjacent to the building. Stairs can be open without enclosing walls or closed, placed in special rooms called staircases.
Stairs consist of inclined structural elements - stair flights with steps and horizontal landings (floor platforms located at the floor level and intermediate or interfloor areas). Vertical stair rails are called railings.
According to the number of flights in the plan, one-, two-, three- and four-flight staircases are distinguished, and in form, rectilinear and curvilinear (screw).
Depending on the design and manufacturing technique, the stairs can be made of small or large elements. Prefabricated small-element ladders consist of steps, stringers, strut or platform beams and platforms.
Large-element prefabricated staircases are assembled from two elements of monolithic flights and platforms or from one element-march, combined with a half-platform. The horizontal surface of a step is called a tread, and its height is called a riser.
The slope of a flight of stairs is the ratio of its height to the horizontal projection of the flight, which is called laying (for example, the slope of the stairs is 1: 2, if D \u003d 3000). Sometimes the slope is determined in degrees of the angle of inclination of the march to the horizon (for example, \u003d 26 ° 40 "), but more often the slope is expressed as the ratio of the height of the riser to the width of the tread (for example, the slope of the stairs is 1: 2, if n riser \u003d 150 and e tread \u003d 300 ).
Windows are used to illuminate the room with natural light and to ventilate them. Window openings are filled with glazed elements - window blocks consisting of boxes and window sashes, which can be single or double, blind or casement.
Lanterns are special constructions in the form of glazed superstructures arranged in the roof to illuminate the room from above and at the same time to ventilate them.
Doors serve to communicate rooms with each other and to isolate one adjacent room from another.
The gates are arranged in cases where it is necessary to deliver large equipment to the premises or let vehicles pass.
Doors and gates can be external or internal. They consist of boxes and canvases. Depending on the number of canvases, they are divided into single-floor, double-floor and one-and-a-half. By the method of opening, they can be swing, sliding or lifting. The dimensions of gates and doors depend on the purpose of the premises and the nature of the functional process.
Organization of the entrance area.
The organization of the entrance group is possible at any stage of the building's operation, but the most expedient planning is already at the design stage, only designers and builders do not always pay due attention to this.
Correct organization of the entrance area with antisplash coatings means an increase in the service life of floor coverings, and not only in the areas directly adjacent to the entrances, but practically on all floors. In heavy snowfalls, even with the correct arrangement of the entrance area, snow can be carried on shoes to the upper floors, getting stuck in the treads of the soles and in the grooves of high heels.
The entrance group consists of three parts:
1st zone - in front of the entrance to the building
2nd zone - in the vestibule
3rd zone - in the lobby.
The size of the entrance area is determined in such a way that a person takes four steps on each dirt-protection coating. This achieves an average cleansing effect.
When selecting coverage for zone 1, it should be remembered that coatings with an aluminum profile are more often used on commercial real estate objects where there is a high traffic intensity. It is impossible to save on these coatings, since they retain the main amount of coarse dirt: gravel, coarse sand, lumps of snow and ice floes that have absorbed reagents and oil products. For this purpose, a pit is made in front of the entrance, preferably heated, if for some reason it is impossible to make a pit, then the coating should be framed with an aluminum profile.
Zone 2, or vestibule, can be equipped with a vinyl stain-proof coating with anti-cable cells, or a coating with an aluminum profile with pile inserts.
Inside the building, where the 3rd zone begins, the best option would be a pile covering, the so-called anti-dirt carpets. In our country, in the summer, protective coatings are often removed - this is categorically wrong: dirt is still brought into the room, it is just dry and inconspicuous. If you do not use a dirt-resistant carpet, even with the most careful and constant collection, most of the dirt will still be carried throughout the building.
Providing a connection between the basement and the ground floor.
aboutmain building structures.
The building is a multifunctional facility, being erected in order to ensure comfortable living and various kinds of human activities.
A structure is a volumetric material building unit, consisting of appropriate structures. Structures can be used for storing equipment, materials, various kinds of products, for temporary stay of people, etc. The structures can be such objects as: airfields, power lines, pipelines, overpasses, towers, tunnels, etc.
Buildings and structures are subdivided into residential, public and industrial, and have certain structural elements.
Foundation, this is underground part buildings and structures, which perceives the entire load of the construction site. Foundations are strip or columnar. Strip foundation is laid, following the entire perimeter of the wall, and the columnar foundation in the form of separate supporting elements.
Walls divided by purpose and location into external, internal and load-bearing elements of buildings. The purpose of the outer walls is to protect the premises from environmental influences. Internal walls divide the rooms in the building itself according to the design. Structural walls transfer the total load from the floor, roof and their own weight to the foundation. In addition to the load-bearing walls, there are also curtain and self-supporting walls. Self-supporting walls are the corresponding parts of buildings that only transfer their own weight. Curtain walls, in the form of individual slabs or panels, are attached to the columns and transfer their own weight to them.
Partitions, these are internal planning structures that separate adjacent rooms inside the building.
Plinth, this is the lower part of the outer wall that rests directly on the foundation.
Blind area designed to remove moisture in case of precipitation from the walls of the building.
Overlapping, it is a horizontal structure that is located inside the building and divides it into floors in height. Overlaps are interfloor, basement, above basement, basement, attic.
Coating, it is the upper element of the structure that protects the premises of the building from environmental influences and protects them from precipitation. This structural element combines the functionality of the ceiling and roof.
Roof - the upper waterproof layer of the roof or building covering.
Rafters - load-bearing parts of the roof covering in the form of a beam resting on the walls and internal supports.
Flight of stairs - an inclined structure, which, as a rule, has at least eighteen steps.
Kosoura, these are reinforced concrete or steel beams, located at an angle and resting on platforms with their ends. These structural elements serve as the basis for fastening the steps of the stairs.
ABOUTbuilding enclosures.
Enclosing structures of buildings and structures, building structures (walls, ceilings, coatings, filling openings, partitions, etc.) that limit the volume of a building (structure) and dividing it into separate rooms. The main purpose of an o.c.) Is the protection (fencing) of premises from temperature influences, wind, moisture, noise, radiation, etc., what is their difference from supporting structures (see. Bearing structures), perceiving power loads; this difference is conditional, since often fencing and bearing functions are combined in one structure (walls, partitions (See Partition), floor slabs (See Overlapping) and coatings (See Coverage), etc.). O. to. Is divided into external (or external) and internal. External ones serve mainly for weather protection, internal ones) mainly for separating the interior of the building and soundproofing.
According to the method of manufacture, they are distinguished O. k. Prefabricated (assembled from prefabricated elements of factory production) and erected at the construction site. In the latter case, the term "monolithic" is used for brick, concrete and reinforced concrete o.o. Depending on the constructive solution, O. to. Is divided into simple and complex (composite). Simple ("single-layer") o.c. Are made of one material or from homogeneous piece products (brick walls, lightweight concrete panels, gypsum partitions, etc.). Complex ("multilayer") O. K. consist of several elements or layers, such as load-bearing, insulating, finishing.
Among the architectural buildings, special importance is attached to the outer walls, which determine the architectural appearance of the building; often the material of the walls also characterizes the constructive type of the building) large-block, large-panel, wooden (chopped or panel board), brick. Walls also play the role of vertical stiffness diaphragms (see Diaphragm).
The operational qualities of outdoor outdoor facilities should correspond to local climatic characteristics and provide the necessary sanitary and hygienic and comfortable conditions in the premises. Internal O. to. Requires proper isolation from air and impact noise, from heat and moisture of adjacent rooms. O. to. Must have high strength, rigidity, stability, fire resistance. It is also necessary that the texture, color, and other decorative qualities of the surfaces of the decorative surface correspond to the purpose of buildings and premises, and contribute to the achievement of their architectural expressiveness.
An important property of o.c. Is their durability, the degree of which is established depending on the class of the building and the materials used, taking into account the actual conditions of wear o.c. As a result of external influences. When using prefabricated structures, special attention is paid to the structural solutions of the connecting nodes and the quality of the mates (joints, ties, fasteners and embedded parts (see Embedded parts)) in order to exclude the possibility of destruction of the connecting elements during the service life established for the building (structure ) generally.
The main trends in the development of modern industrial building: the predominant use of prefabricated large-sized industrial structures with a high degree of factory readiness, including large wall panels (textured and glazed), enlarged complex floors with a finished floor, volumetric elements (blocks) with finishing of all surfaces ; improving the designs of prefabricated elements and their connecting assemblies with the aim of reducing the labor intensity of manufacturing and assembling the building assembly and the building as a whole; weight loss O. to .; use of local building materials for the manufacture of O. K.
Supporting structures of civil buildings.
The design of building structures for any purpose begins with the solution of the main fundamental problem - the choice of the structural system of the building based on functional and technical and economic requirements.
A structural system is an interconnected set of vertical and horizontal supporting structures of a building, which, perceiving all loads and influences falling on it, together provide strength, spatial rigidity and stability of the structure.
The choice of the structural system determines the role of each load-bearing structural element in the spatial work of the building.
Horizontal load-bearing structures (roofs and floors) perceive all vertical loads falling on them and transfer them to vertical load-bearing structures (walls, columns, etc.), which, in turn, transfer loads through the foundation to the ground (building base). Horizontal supporting structures, as a rule, play the role of hard disks in a building - horizontal stiffening diaphragms. They perceive and redistribute horizontal loads and impacts (wind, seismic) between the vertical supporting structures.
The horizontal supporting structures of civil buildings with a height of more than two floors are usually of the same type and represent a reinforced concrete disc - precast (from individual reinforced concrete solid, hollow-core or ribbed slabs), precast-monolithic or monolithic. Also in multi-storey industrial buildings (less often in civil buildings), floors are used on metal beams (girders) and profiled steel flooring. Based on fire safety requirements, in a number of cases, such ceilings are subsequently cast into concrete.
Vertical bearing structures are more diverse than horizontal ones. There are the following types of vertical supporting structures:
Rod (frame racks);
Plane (walls, diaphragms);
Volumetric-spatial elements with a height of a floor (volumetric blocks);
Internal volumetric hollow rods (open or closed section) to the height of the building (stiffening trunks);
Volumetric-spatial external supporting structures to the height of the building in the form of a thin-walled shell of a closed section (shell).
According to the type of vertical supporting structure, the five main structural systems of buildings were named:
Wireframe;
Frameless (wall);
Volume-block;
Barrel;
Sheathing.
ttypes of foundations of civil buildings.
A foundation may be needed for the construction of any structure in the garden, if it is necessary to evenly distribute the load over a hard surface. Whether you're building a foundation for a retaining wall, garden staircase, or driveway, the basic principles are the same.
Strip foundation
Small buildings for brick pots or stone walls must be built on a strip foundation. To do this, they dig a trench, fill it with sand, rammed rubble or broken brick, and then fill it with a concrete solution.
The width of the foundation must be twice the width of the wall so that its weight is distributed at an angle of 45 ° from its base (the so-called "scattering angle"). And the depth of the foundation depends on the height and thickness of the wall, as well as the type of soil, but usually it is half of its width.
Brick foundation
Sometimes you need to lay a foundation under a wall or other object, the height of the masonry of which is less than 6 rows of bricks, and the length is less than 6 m.To do this, it is enough to make a strip foundation of bricks laid crosswise on a well-rammed subsoil covered with a thin layer of sand. The bricks are poured with a liquid cement "creamy" mortar.
Foundation for stairs
When constructing stairs on a slope at the base of the span, a concrete foundation is made under the first riser (the vertical part of the step) so that the entire structure does not slide down. The treads (horizontal parts of the steps) should be laid on a well-compacted layer of rubble, and intermediate risers - on the edge of the lower tread or on the rubble poured behind each tread.
For individual steps connecting, for example, two levels of the surface, you can lay out a strip foundation along the perimeter of the steps, and inside it, fill it with compacted rubble.
Paving foundation
Slabs, paving stones and other paving materials should be placed on a carefully leveled, hard and solid surface, usually well-tamped soil, but if the soil is soft, rubble can be added and tamped to prevent settling of the paving.
There are many voids in the crushed stone layer, even after it has been compacted with a garden roller. They can be filled with a thin layer of sand or a dry cement mixture (for example, one part cement and three parts sand) and smoothed with the back of the rake (remember to clean the tools thoroughly after working with slurry, as dried concrete is very difficult to remove ).
Paving slabs or other small elements used to construct a pavement can be laid directly on the sand layer with concrete mortar, although some types of paving stones can be laid on a prepared sand cushion without mortar.
Foundation in formwork
Figure: 138. The foundation is in the formwork. A trench with a formwork towering above the ground, which is held by pegs driven along the entire perimeter, filled with well-tamped rubble and a thin layer of sand, filled with concrete to the top of the formwork.
The strip foundation is poured with concrete mortar
Figure: 139. Strip foundation. A trench filled with well-packed rubble, a thin layer of sand and poured with concrete to the level of pegs driven into the foundation. Used for small structures and walls in the garden.
SOIL CONDITIONS. In order for the foundation to hold the structure, it is built on solid ground, that is, at a depth of 10 to 30 cm from the earth's surface.
Subsoil types also differ in their bearing capacity: calcareous soil, for example, can support more weight than alumina, while sandy soil is the opposite. Thus, the softer the soil, the wider the foundation is made.
The climate plays an important role in determining the depth of the foundation: since seasonal deformation can lead to cracks in it, the foundation should be made deeper than the level of soil freezing.
When building the foundation, you can either fill the trench with a small layer of concrete mortar, and lay out the rest of its space brickwork, or fill only with mortar, saving on bricks.
Solid foundation
If for a light shed or a heating boiler, paving slabs laid on a previously prepared "pillow" of shebny can serve as a foundation, then large garden structures, such as a garage or a summer house, must be installed on a more solid foundation - on a solid foundation (prepared "pillow »Fill with concrete solution).
Such a foundation is also made for driveways, parking lots and utility paths as a basis for covering.
The plank formwork is erected around the perimeter of the structure being erected and fixed with pegs driven into the ground (see. Foundation in the formwork), and then the "pillow" prepared from sand and gravel is poured with concrete solution to the edges of the formwork, which is removed after the concrete has hardened.
fromshades of civil buildings.
The building wall is the main building envelope. The walls of buildings, in addition to the enclosing functions, simultaneously perform bearing functions. They serve as supports for the perception and transmission of vertical and horizontal loads.
The following requirements are imposed on the walls: strength, heat resistance, sound insulation capacity, fire resistance, durability, architectural expressiveness and economy.
The walls are external and internal.
Outer walls are divided according to the nature of static work into:
Load-bearing walls. They perceive and transfer to the foundation loads from floors, coatings, wind pressure, etc.;
Self-supporting walls. They rest on the foundation and carry only their own weight (within all floors of the building). To ensure stability, these walls must be mated to the building frame;
Non-bearing (including curtain) walls. They take their own weight only within one floor, the weight of these walls is transferred to the frame or other supporting structures of the building.
Internal walls are subdivided into:
Load-bearing, which, like external load-bearing walls, perceive and transfer to the foundation loads from floors and coatings. Internal walls are often used for ducts and niches for ventilation, gas ducts, plumbing and sewer pipes etc. Together with the ceilings, the load-bearing walls form a stable spatial system of the load-bearing frame of the building;
Non-bearing - partitions intended only for dividing rooms, which are installed directly on the floor;
Self-supporting walls that serve as stiffness diaphragms in frame buildings.
According to the method of construction, the wall is divided into:
National teams. They are assembled from prefabricated elements;
Monolithic. They are usually made of concrete. For their construction, a mobile or sliding formwork is used;
Handmade walls are made of small-piece materials on mortars.
Columns and independent supports
Massive load-bearing walls can be replaced with rows of supports. Structural elements, which have the shape of a rod and are most often vertical, transfer static loads to the foundation and, due to the creation of intermediate spaces between them (intercolumnia), optical expansion occurs closed wall with the transition to the transparent border of space. Spaces and parts of spaces can be connected in the same way that external and internal spaces can be merged, using supports instead of massive facades. The shape and material of the supports have changed several times. Already in the early period of history, it was common to use a wooden post, which is still used today as a support. In more advanced forms, it can be found in modern mast structures, in concrete masts anchored in foundation holes, in a roof support or for wall reinforcement. A stone buttress can have not only a square or rectangular cross-section, but also be round or polygonal.
Depending on the architectural composition, there are free-standing buttresses and pilasters, corner pylons (pillars) and buttresses. The very name of composite columns and cross-section pillars indicates a complex outline. For modern steel and reinforced concrete skeletal structures, the concept of buttress has been replaced by a general designation - support. Supports of this kind do not need to be vertical anymore, they can be Y-, V- or A-shaped.
Any construction support element in the architecture of past eras, it was a column, the classical form of which has come down from the times of Greek antiquity. A column with a capital, a trunk and a base is an architectural element that is closest to sculpture. The power of expressiveness and the dignity of the image of the column determined, on the one hand, its many variants and significance in the theory of architecture, and, on the other, its exclusiveness. Often the column was only allowed to be used for selected architectural tasks and for special customers. Because of the beauty of the perception of its image, the column was sometimes isolated from the architectural work itself and was used as a monument in the form of a triumphal column. A row of columns (colonnades) carrying an entablature, or columns covered by a row of arches (arcades) can also have an independent life in architecture.
At first, the Romanesque columns were strongly influenced by their ancient origin, but soon simple cube-shaped capitals and compressed trunks gave them new forms that cannot be confused with anything. Capitals of the late Romanesque period, decorated with sculptural images, are also incomparable. The combination of two or four columns from the end of the Romanesque period separated from a compound pillar, a buttress surrounded by several columns with different barrel thicknesses.
It was only in the late Gothic period that new forms of pillars were replaced by round and compound pillars: slender polygonal pillars without a base and capitals carried relatively flat mesh and star vaults. Romanesque small paired columns, knotted in the middle, represent the same variety as the late Gothic supports in the form of tree trunks. During the Renaissance, preference was given to the Tuscan order - a relatively modest Roman-Doric column with a smooth barrel. During the German Renaissance, it was supplemented by columns in the form of a baluster or candelabra, the trunks of which seemed to be composed of many separate elements. The rich Corinthian order with a capital of acanthus leaves and deep flutes corresponded to the Baroque Paphos, which was used even for purely decorative columns and pilasters. Baroque details also include the spirally bent columnar trunks. During the period of classicism, three famous Greek orders were copied with Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns.
Historicism used all the historical forms of columns, and above all for metal supports. For engineering structures, as well as for lattice structures, as a rule, steel supports from rolled profiles were used. Antipathy to the world of forms of the period of historicism made the column a rare guest in modern architecture.
A room with a stove, the so-called residential part of a country house in a Low German hall-type house. As elsewhere in the folk architecture of Central Europe, where areas teeming with forests predominated, half-timbered structures were common. Here, wooden supports also carry a wooden attic floor. The decoration of the capital, base and entasis of the column are borrowed from stone architecture. The furniture in the dining area has baroque features.
Partitions of civil buildings.
In residential and public buildings, depending on the purpose, there are inter-room partitions, inter-apartment partitions and partitions that enclose sanitary facilities and kitchens.
Partitions of civil buildings must have good soundproofing qualities, fire resistance, low weight, nails must not have cracks and cracks, must be industrial and economical. Additional requirements are imposed on the partitions of sanitary facilities and kitchens: they must not absorb moisture and have a smooth surface that allows wet cleaning.
By the type of materials, partitions of civil buildings can be wooden, made of fiberboard slabs, brick, gypsum-concrete, expanded clay concrete and slag concrete panels, glass products.
Wooden partitions can be plank, panel, frame sheathing and joinery.
Single plank partitions are made of 50 mm thick boards, which are installed vertically on the lower timber strapping laid on the ceiling. The surfaces of the plank partitions are plastered with lime mortar on shingles or sheathed with sheets of dry plaster.
Shield partitions are assembled from factory-made wooden panels, consisting of two or three layers of boards sheathed with shingles. Thickness of two-layer panels is 50-80 mm, three-layer panels - 57-87 mm. The surfaces of the panel partitions are plastered.
Frame-sheathing partitions consist of a frame, double-sided plank sheathing with filling the space between the sheathing with lightweight porous fillers or fiberboard plates. The surfaces of the partitions are plastered.
In frame-sheet partitions, vertical frame racks, installed after 80-100 cm, are sheathed with sheets of dry plaster or fibreboards, and the cavities are filled with fiberboard or reeds.
Fibrolite partitions can be made without sheathing, but with plastering the surfaces with cement-sand mortar.
Joiner's partitions are made of clean joinery boards or particle boards, followed by painting with oil paints or facing with decorative films. Wooden partitions are used in wooden buildings and low-rise stone buildings in areas where wood is a local building material. They fasten wooden partitions to ceilings, walls and connect to each other directly with nails or using various metal parts: anchors, clamps, brackets, ruffs.
Brick partitions are 1/2 or 1/4 thick bricks in mortar, followed by plastering of surfaces. With a height of partitions of more than 3 m and a length of more than 5 m, reinforcing steel with a diameter of 4-6 mm is placed in the seams every 5-6 rows of masonry. The ends of the reinforcement are attached to the walls and brick pillars of the building with the help of ruffs. Brick partitions are non-industrial and are used for small volumes of work in areas where the factory production of large-sized partition plates and panels is not established.
Gypsum and gypsum concrete partitions are made of prefabricated slabs 800 × 400 mm in size and 80-100 mm thick, installed on gypsum or gypsum-lime mortar. Partitions from slabs are made in one or two layers with an air gap. Such partitions are not used in rooms with excessive humidity, since gypsum loses its strength when moistened.
In rooms with high humidity (bathrooms, laundries, etc.), partitions are used from slag concrete hollow slabs and hollow ceramic stones.
The most widespread use at the present time in the construction of civil buildings are panel partitions made of gypsum concrete, expanded clay concrete and slag concrete panels of prefabricated size per room and 80-160 mm thick. Gypsum concrete panels are manufactured at factories by vibro-rolling from gypsum concrete reinforced with wooden slats, and expanded clay concrete and slag concrete panels - in cassettes. In the factory, the surfaces of panel partitions are prepared for painting or wallpapering. After installing the panel partitions in the design position with cranes, they are attached to the walls and to each other with steel clamps, ruffs or welding of embedded parts.
Glass partitions of civil buildings can be made of ordinary sheet, thickened, reinforced or patterned glass on a wooden, steel or aluminum frame, as well as from bulk glass blocks and shaped glass.
Glass partitions do not require further finishing and are of high quality and decorative properties, especially when colored glass is used.
Soundproofing partitions. An important quality of partitions in civil buildings is soundproofing. To increase the sound insulation of partitions during their construction, it is necessary to monitor the sealing of seams and cracks at the junctions with walls and ceilings, filling the cracks with tow or felt soaked in alabaster or clay mortar. Partitions with an air gap between the layers of insulation have good sound insulation. Partitions should not be installed on clean floors, but should be supported on beams or directly on ceilings. In places where the floor adjoins the partitions, it is necessary to lay soundproofing layers. A gap of 10-15 mm is left between the ceiling and the partition, followed by caulking it with tow soaked in a solution, and then sealing it with a solution.
Doors and openings.
A door is a movable fence in the opening of a wall or partition. Elements for filling the doorway include: a U-shaped door frame with quarters over the strapping office; door leaf hung on the frame.
Doors are subdivided according to the following criteria: by location in the building: external (entrance to the apartment), internal, cupboard (by built-in wardrobes), service (leading to the basement, to the attic), front doors (at the entrance to the building); by the number of canvases: single-floor, one and a half-floor (with two canvases of different widths), double-floor; by the nature of the fence: deaf, semi-glazed, glazed; by the way of opening: opening in one direction, in both directions, sliding, folding, rotating.
For the convenience of evacuation, most doors in civil buildings open outward, with the exception of intra-apartment and apartment entrances.
Securing door blocks
Door leaf construction
The door block is a door frame with a canvas hung on it. Installed in the opening of stone walls or partitions, such a block is protected from decay, in addition, it is fixed, like window blocks, to wooden inserts embedded in the slopes of the opening. The threshold at most external doors, including balcony doors, is slightly raised. The door block in the opening of the partition is installed in the same plane (flush) with one of the surfaces of the fence. Then it is attached to the bars framing the opening, or to wooden inserts. The gaps between the box and the partition are closed, and the joint is closed with a casing.
Fire resistant doors and hatches, door fittings.
Doors leading to the basement, to the attic, manholes to the attic or to the combined roof, according to fire safety requirements, are made fire-resistant. The canvases of such doors and hatches are upholstered on both sides with asbestos or felt soaked in clay and protected with sheet steel. The surface of the door frames is also covered with sheet steel, but without felt and asbestos lining.
Door devices are designed for hanging the canvases, opening, closing and fixing them in a certain position. They are made from metal, plastics and other materials. Door fittings, depending on the location, can be right and left.
Roofs of civil buildings.
The upper structural part of buildings, designed to protect against atmospheric influences (rain, snow, sunlight, wind), is called a roof.
The roof consists of a load-bearing and an enclosing part. The load-bearing structures of the roof absorb the loads from snow, wind, and their own weight and transfer them to the walls or the building frame. The enclosing part serves as waterproofing and heat-insulating protection and consists of a roof and a base for it.
In geometric shape, depending on the outlines and sizes of buildings in the roof plan, there are attic - one-, two
The device of pitched roofs.
The roof is the final stage in the construction of a country house. The reliability of the entire building, as well as the comfortable living of residents, depends on how competently the roof structure and the materials from which it is built will be chosen.
In order not to be mistaken in choosing a structure and roofing materials for the construction of a roof, we recommend that you contact the specialists: Ursa pitched roof. In our article we will talk about the types of pitched roofs, their design features.
